Advances in Acoustic Microscopy and High Resolution Imaging: From Principles to Applications

Novel physical solutions, including new results in the field of adaptive methods and inventive approaches to inverse problems, original concepts based on high harmonic imaging algorithms, intriguing vibro-acoustic imaging and vibro-modulation technique, etc. were successfully introduced and verified in numerous studies of industrial materials and biomaterials in the last few years. Together with the above mentioned traditional academic and practical avenues in ultrasonic imaging research, intriguing scientific discussions have recently surfaced and will hopefully continue to bear fruits in the future. The goal of this book is to provide an overview of the recent advances in high-resolution ultrasonic imaging techniques and their applications to biomaterials evaluation and industrial materials. The result is a unique collection of papers presenting novel results and techniques that were developed by leading research groups worldwide.
This book offers a number of new results from well-known authors who are engaged in aspects of the development of novel physical principles, new methods, or implementation of modern technological solutions into current imaging devices and new applications of high-resolution imaging systems. The ultimate purpose of this book is to encourage more research and development in the field to realize the great potential of high resolution acoustic imaging and its various industrial and biomedical applications. 

List of Contributors XIII

Introduction XVII

Author Biographies XIX

Part One Fundamentals 1

1 From Multiwave Imaging to Elasticity Imaging 3
Mathias Fink and Mickael Tanter

1.1 Introduction 3

1.2 Regimes of Spatial Resolution 3

1.3 The Multiwave Approach 4

1.4 Wave to Wave Generation 5

1.5 Wave to Wave Tagging 7

1.6 Wave to Wave Imaging: Mapping Elasticity 8

1.7 Super-resolution in Supersonic Shear Wave Imaging 14

1.8 Clinical Applications 16

1.9 Conclusion 19

References 21

2 Imaging via Speckle Interferometry and Nonlinear Methods 23
Jeffrey Sadler and Roman Gr. Maev

2.1 General Introduction 23

2.2 Part I: Speckle Interferometry 24

2.2.1 Introduction 24

2.2.2 Labeyrie’s Method 25

2.2.3 Knox–Thompson Method 29

2.2.4 Importance of Phase Difference Calculation 32

2.2.5 Labeyrie and Knox–Thompson in Two Dimensions 33

2.2.6 Other Improvements to Speckle Interferometry 34

2.3 Part II: Nonlinear Imaging 34

2.3.1 Introduction 34

2.3.2 Deviation (Difference Squared), or Absolute Difference 36

2.3.3 Fourier Transform-Based Methodology 36

2.3.4 Fourier Methodology: How to Create an Image 38

2.3.5 Fourier Transform: Problems with Using 39

2.3.6 Hilbert Transform-Based Methodology 39

2.3.7 Hilbert Methodology: How to Create an Image, and 3D Image 42

2.4 Summary and Closing 44

Selected References (By Subject) 45

Speckle: Base Methods 45

Speckle: More Advanced Methods 45

Nonlinear Imaging 45

Part Two Novel Developments in Advanced Imaging Techniques and Methods 47

3 Fundamentals and Applications of a Quantitative Ultrasonic Microscope for Soft Biological Tissues 49
Kazuto Kobayashi and Naohiro Hozumi

3.1 General Introduction: Basic Idea of an Ultrasonic Microscope for Biological Tissues 49

3.2 Sound Speed Profi le 50

3.2.1 Fundamentals 50

3.2.2 Specimen to be Observed 50

3.2.3 Experimental Setup and Acquired Signal 51

3.2.4 Calculation of Sound Speed 52

3.2.4.1 Frequency Domain Analysis 52

3.2.4.2 Time–Frequency Domain Analysis 54

3.2.5 Two-Dimensional Sound Speed Profi les 56

3.2.6 Attempts at Better Spatial Resolution 58

3.3 Acoustic Impedance Profi le 60

3.3.1 Fundamentals 60

3.3.2 Experimental Setup 61

3.3.3 Specimen to be Observed 62

3.3.4 Acquired Signal 63

3.3.5 Calibration for Characteristic Acoustic Impedance 63

3.3.6 Observation of Cerebellar Cortex of a Rat 65

3.3.7 Cell Size Observation 67

3.3.8 Commercialized Equipment 69

3.4 Summary 70

References 70

4 Portable Ultrasonic Imaging Devices 71
Sergey A. Titov, Roman Gr. Maev, and Fedar M. Severin

References 91

5 High-Frequency Ultrasonic Systems for High-Resolution Ranging and Imaging 93
Michael Vogt and Helmut Ermert

5.1 General Introduction 93

5.2 High-Frequency Ultrasonic System Components 94

5.2.1 Ultrasound Echo Systems 94

5.2.2 Transmitter and Receiver Components for High-Frequency Ultrasonic Echo Systems 95

5.2.3 Spectral and Range Resolution Properties 97

5.2.4 Measurement and Optimization of the Pulse Transfer Properties 99

5.2.5 Range Resolution Optimization: Inverse Echo Signal Filtering 101

5.2.6 Measurement of Acoustic Scattering Parameters in Plane Wave Propagation 102

5.3 Engineering Concepts for High-Frequency Ultrasonic Imaging 104

5.3.1 Single-Element Transducer B-Scan Techniques 104

5.3.2 Lateral Resolution Optimization 105

5.3.2.1 B/D-Scan Technique 106

5.3.2.2 Synthetic Aperture Focusing Techniques (SAFT) 106

5.3.3 Limited Angle Spatial Compounding (LASC) 110

5.3.4 Multidirectional Tissue Characterization 112

5.4 High-Frequency Ultrasound Imaging in Biomedical Applications 115

5.4.1 Skin Imaging 115

5.4.2 Imaging of Small Animals 117

5.5 Summary 118

References 119

6 Quantitative Acoustic Microscopy Based on the Array Approach 125
Sergey Titov and Roman Gr. Maev

6.1 General Introduction 125

6.2 Measurement of Velocity and Attenuation of Leaky Waves 126

6.3 Measurement of Bulk Wave Velocities and Thickness of Specimen 141

6.4 Conclusions 150

References 150

Part Three Advanced Biomedical Applications 153

7 Study of the Contrast Mechanism in an Acoustic Image for Thickly Sectioned Melanoma Skin Tissues with Acoustic Microscopy 155
Bernhard R. Tittmann, Chiaki Miyasaka, Elena Maeva, and David Shum

7.1 Introduction 155

7.1.1 What Is Melanoma? 155

7.1.2 How Is Melanoma Diagnosed? 156

7.1.3 Present Problems for Biopsy 157

7.1.4 Objective of Present Study 157

7.2 Physical and Mathematical Modeling for Five Layer Wave Propagation in an Acoustic Microscope 158

7.3 Sample Preparation 162

7.4 Digital Imaging – Optical and Ultrasonic 163

7.4.1 Optical Image 163

7.4.2 Acoustic Imaging Principle (Pulse-Wave Mode) 164

7.4.3 Resolution 168

7.4.4 Acoustic Images 169

7.4.5 Waveform Analysis 171

7.5 High Frequency Acoustic Microscopy 174

7.5.1 Normal Control Skin Tissue 174

7.5.2 Abnormal Skin Tissue 175

7.5.3 Acoustic Velocity 175

7.5.4 Computer Simulation 177

7.5.4.1 Experimental V(z) Curve 177

7.5.4.2 Theoretical V(z) Curve (Simulation of V(z) Curve) 178

7.6 Conclusions 181

Acknowledgment 183

References 183

8 New Concept of Pathology – Mechanical Properties Provided by Acoustic Microscopy 187
Yoshifumi Saijo

8.1 Introduction 187

8.2 Principle of Acoustic Microscopy 188

8.3 Application to Cellular Imaging 189

8.4 Application to Hard Tissues 191

8.5 Application to Soft Tissues 193

8.5.1 Gastric Cancer 193

8.5.2 Myocardial Infarction 195

8.5.3 Kidney 197

8.5.4 Atherosclerosis 197

8.6 Ultrasound Speed Microscopy (USM) 200

8.7 Articular Tissues 202

8.8 Summary 202

References 204

9 Quantitative Scanning Acoustic Microscopy of Bone 207
Pascal Laugier, Amena Saïed, Mathilde Granke, and Kay Raum

9.1 Introduction 207

9.1.1 Hierarchical Structure of Bone and Properties 207

9.1.2 Relevance of Multiscale Elastic Properties 209

9.1.3 History of Measurement Principles 210

9.2 Quantitative SAM-Based Impedance of Bone 213

9.2.1 Theory 213

9.2.2 Time-Resolved Measurements 216

9.2.3 Measurements with Time-Gated Amplitude Detection 217

9.2.3.1 Calibration 218

9.3 Tissue Mineralization, Acoustic Impedance, and Stiffness 219

9.4 Elastic Anisotropy at the Nanoscale (Lamellar) Level 222

9.5 Elastic Anisotropy at the Microscale (Tissue) Level 223

9.6 Applications in Musculoskeletal Research 225

9.7 Conclusions 226

References 228

Part Four Advanced Materials Applications 231

10 Array Imaging and Defect Characterization Using Post-processing Approaches 233
Alexander Velichko, Paul D. Wilcox, and Bruce W. Drinkwater

10.1 Introduction 233

10.2 Modeling Array Data 237

10.2.1 Introduction 237

10.2.2 Ray-Based Description of Ultrasonic Array Data 238

10.2.2.1 Determining the Ray-Paths 238

10.2.2.2 Predicting the Signal Associated with a Ray-Path 240

10.2.2.3 Simple Example 240

10.2.3 Mathematical Model of Ultrasonic Array Data 242

10.3 Imaging with 1D Arrays 245

10.3.1 Classical Beam-Forming Imaging Methods in Post-processing 245

10.3.2 Total Focusing Method 246

10.3.3 Wavenumber Method 247

10.3.4 Back-Propagation Method 249

10.3.5 Theoretical Comparison of Imaging Methods 250

10.3.6 Computational Burden 251

10.3.7 Focusing Performance 252

10.3.8 Experimental Example 253

10.4 Imaging with 2D Arrays 255

10.4.1 Optimization of 2D Array Layout 255

10.4.1.1 Optimization Criterion 255

10.4.1.2 Regular Sampling 256

10.4.1.3 Non-uniform Sampling 257

10.4.2 Experimental Comparison of 2D Array Layouts 258

10.4.2.1 Spherical Inclusion 259

10.4.2.2 Aluminum Block with Flat Bottom Holes 260

10.4.2.3 Surface-Breaking Fatigue Crack 260

10.5 Scattering Matrices and Their Experimental Extraction 260

10.5.1 Feature Extraction from Array Data 262

10.5.1.1 Concept 262

10.5.1.2 Inverse Imaging 263

10.5.1.3 Extraction of Scattering Matrix 266

10.6 Defect Characterization and Sizing 267

10.6.1 Crack Sizing 267

10.6.1.1 1D Array 267

10.6.1.2 2D Array 268

10.6.2 Experimental Results 269

10.6.2.1 1D Array 269

10.6.2.2 2D Array 271

10.7 Conclusions 272

References 273

11 Ultrasonic Force and Related Microscopies 277
Andrew Briggs and Oleg V. Kolosov

11.1 Introduction 277

11.2 Mechanical Diode Detection 279

11.3 Experimental UFM Implementation 280

11.4 UFM Contrast Theory 283

11.5 Quantitative Measurements of Contact Stiffness 287

11.6 UFM Picture Gallery 289

11.7 Image Interpretation – Effects of Adhesion and Topography 293

11.8 Superlubricity 295

11.9 Defects Below the Surface 297

11.10 Time-Resolved Nanoscale Phenomena 299

Acknowledgments 303

References 304

12 Ultrasonic Atomic Force Microscopy 307
Kazushi Yamanaka and Toshihiro Tsuji

12.1 Introduction 307

12.2 Principle 307

12.2.1 Forced Vibration of Cantilever from the Base 307

12.2.2 Quantitative Information, Directional Control, and Resonance Frequency Tracking 308

12.2.3 Effective Enhancement of Cantilever Stiffness 309

12.2.4 Criterion to Avoid Plastic Deformation 309

12.3 Theory 311

12.3.1 Overview 311

12.3.2 Linear Analysis of Stiffness and the Q Factor 312

12.3.3 Linear Theory of Subsurface Imaging 314

12.3.4 Advantage of Appropriate Load 316

12.3.5 Nonlinear Analysis of Spectra 316

12.3.6 Duffing Model 318

12.3.7 Numerical Model with Double Nodes 319

12.4 Instrumentation 320

12.5 Experiments 322

12.5.1 Effort to Avoid Nonlinearity at Tip–Sample Contact 322

12.5.2 Relation between UAFM and UFM 323

12.5.3 Quantitative Evaluation of Elasticity 324

12.6 Observation of Defects in Layered Materials 325

12.6.1 Defects in Graphene Sheets 325

12.6.2 Dislocation in Molybdenum Disulfide 328

12.6.3 Observation of Dislocation Behavior under Different Loads 329

12.6.4 Analysis of Dislocation Motion under Varying Applied Load 331

12.6.5 Model for the Reversible Long-Range Motion of Dislocation 333

12.6.6 Delamination in Microelectronic and Mechanical Devices 334

12.7 Conclusion 335

References 336

13 Acoustical Near-Field Imaging 339
Walter Arnold

13.1 Principle of Near-Field Imaging 339

13.1.1 Early Systems of Acoustical Near-Field Imaging 339

13.2 Near-Field Acoustical Imaging and Atomic Force Microscopy 342

13.2.1 Force Modulation 343

13.2.2 Local Acceleration Microscopy 344

13.2.3 Pulsed-Force Microscopy 345

13.2.4 Atomic Force Acoustic Microscopy or AFM Contact-Resonance Imaging 345

13.2.4.1 Principle of Operation 345

13.2.4.2 Flexural Cantilever Resonances 346

13.2.4.3 Relationship of Contact Stiffness to Indentation Modulus 350

13.2.4.4 Torsional Resonances 356

13.2.4.5 Piezo-mode Imaging 357

13.2.4.6 Nonlinear Contact Resonances and Related Phenomena 358

13.2.4.7 Subsurface Imaging Using Contact Resonances 359

Acknowledgment 362

References 362

Index 371