Industrial Ion Sources: Broadbeam Gridless Ion Source Technology

Due to the large number of uses of ion sources in academia and industry, those who utilize these sources need up to date and coherent information to keep themselves abreast of developments and options, and to chose ideal solutions for quality and cost–effectiveness. This book, written by an author with a strong industrial background and excellent standing, is the comprehensive guide users and developers of ion sources have been waiting for. Providing a thorough refresher on the physics involved, this resource systematically covers the source types, components, and the operational parameters.

Spis treści:
Preface XI
1 Hall–Current Ion Sources 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Closed Drift Ion Sources 2
1.3 End–Hall Ion Sources 5
1.4 Electric Discharge and Ion Beam Volt–Ampere Characteristics 19
1.5 Operating Parameters Characterizing Ion Source 24
References 26
2 Ion Source and Vacuum Chamber. Influence of Various Effects on Ion Beam Parameters 29
2.1 Introduction 29
2.2 Mass Entrainment 32
2.3 Charge–Exchange Influence on Ion Beam Flow 34
2.4 Doubly Ionized Particles and Their Role 36
2.5 Influence of Vacuum Chamber Pumping Rate 40
2.6 Dielectric Depositions on an Anode During Operation with Reactive Gases 41
2.7 Estimation of Returned Sputtered Particles to Ion Source 43
2.8 Influence of Ion Source Heating on its Operation 47
2.9 Negative Ions and their Role 48
2.10 Conclusion 50
References 50
3 Oscillations and Instabilities in Hall–Current Ion Sources 53
3.1 Introduction 53
3.2 Oscillations and Instabilities 56
3.3 Types of Oscillations 56
3.3.1 Ionization Oscillations 56
3.3.2 Flight Oscillations 58
3.3.3 Contour Oscillations 58
3.3.4 Hybrid Azimuthal Oscillations 60
3.3.5 Oscillations Due to High Pressure 61
3.3.6 Oscillations Due to Ion Beam Underneutralization 61
3.3.7 Oscillation s Due to Incorrect Operation 62
3.3.8 Oscillations Due to Presence of Water Vapors 62
3.4 Conclusions and What to Do About Oscillations 63
References 64
4 Optimum Operation of Hall–Current Ion Sources 67
4.1 Introduction 67
4.2 Regime of Nonself–Sustained Discharge and Optimum Operation Conditions of End–Hall Ion Source 70
4.2.1 Discharge Volt–Ampere Characteristics 70
4.3 Operation of End–Hall Ion Source with Excessive Electron Emission 71
4.4 Ion Beam Energy of End–Hall Ion Source 73
4.5 End–Hall Ion Source Optimum Magnetic Field for Ion Beam Current 76
4.6 Ion Beam Energy Distribution as a Function of Angle With Various Emission Currents 81
4.7 Conclusion 82
References 83
5 Cathode Neutralizers for Ion Sources 85
5.1 Introduction 85
5.2 Ion Beam and its Practical Neutralization 87
5.3 Hot Filament Electron Source and Thermoelectron Emission 93
5.3.1 Richardson–Dushman Formula for Thermoelectron Emission Current Density 93
5.3.2 Recent Improvements in HF Design 101
5.4 Hollow Cathodes 105
5.4.1 Introduction 105
5.4.2 Hollow Cathode Physics 109
5.4.3 Hollow Cathodes for Industrial Ion Sources 115
5.4.4 HC Modes of Operation 121
5.4.5 Hollow Cathode Tip and Keeper 123
5.4.6 General Conclusions about Hollow Cathodes 125
5.4.7 Other Cathodes for Ion Sources 126
5.4.7.1 Plasma Bridge 126
5.4.7.2 Neutralizer with Closed Electron Drift 128
5.4.7.3 Radio–Frequency Neutralizers 129
5.4.7.4 Cold Cathodes 134
5.4.7.5 Neutralization with Alternating Current 135
5.4.7.6 Plasma Bridge Based on Magnetron Discharge Principles 136
5.4.7.7 Ion Beam Neutralization with Magnetron Electrons 139
5.4.7.8 Ion Beam Neutralization with Electron Gun 140
5.4.7.9 Microwave Discharge Neutralizer 141
5.4.8 Cathode Erosion Rates 141
5.4.9 Important Features of Cathode Neutralizers 142
5.5 Conclusion s about Cathode Neutralizers 142
Appendix 5.A: Web Addresses 144
References 144
6 Industrial Gridless Broad–Beam Ion Source Producers, Problems and the Need for Their Standardization 149
6.1 World Producers of Ion Sources 149
6.1.1 Theoretical Consideration for Closed Electron Drift Design 154
6.2 Specific Designs of End–Hall–Current Ion Sources for Thin Film Technology 159
6.3 Nontraditional Broad Beam Ion Sources 168
6.4 Linear Ion Sources 178
6.5 Hall–Current Ion Sources Basic Operation Parameter Problems 183
6.6 The Need for Standardization of Ion Sources 190
6.7 Conclusions 194
Appendix 6.A: Web Addresses 194
References 195
7 Operation of Industrial Ion Sources with Reactive Gases 197
7.1 Introduction 197
7.2 Low– and High–Temperature Oxidation 198
7.3 Ion Source Operation with Dielectric and Insulating Depositions on an Anode 199
7.4 End–Hall with Grooved Anode and Baffle 203
7.5 End–Hall With Hidden Anode Area for Continuing Discharge Operation 205
7.6 Practical Operation of Hall–Current Ion Sources with Reactive Gases 206
References 208
8 Ion Beam and Radiation Impact on Substrate Heating 209
8.1 Introduction 209
8.2 Target–Substrate Heating By Radiation and Ion Beam 211
8.3 Experimental Measurements of Ion Beam and Radiation Impact on a Target–Substrate 218
8.4 Conclusion 222
Appendix A.8: Web Addresses 222
References 222
9 Ion Beam Energy and Current 223
9.1 Introduction 223
9.2 Ion Beam Energy Distribution 225
9.3 Retarding Potential Probes 228
References 240
10 Plasma Optical Systems 241
10.1 Introduction 241
10.2 Plasma Optics Evolution 242
10.3 Electrostatic Fields in Plasma 243
10.4 Plasma Optical Systems with Equipotential Magnetic Field Lines 244
10.5 Plasma Lenses 245
10.6 Practical Applications of Plas ma Optical Systems in Technology 248
10.6.1 Ion Beam Focusing and Defocusing with Plasma Lens 248
10.6.2 Ion Beam Soldering with Focused or Partially Focused Ion Beam 249
References 254
11 Ion and Plasma Sources for Science and Technology 255
11.1 Introduction 255
11.2 Vacuum Pump 255
11.3 Commutating Properties of Gas Discharge in Magnetic Field 256
11.3.1 Plasma Switch 257
11.4 Hollow Cathode as Vacuum Valve 258
11.5 Ion Source for Levitation 260
11.6 Hydrogen Motion through Metal Membrane for MPD Plasma Source 261
11.7 Plasmaoptical Mass Separator 262
11.8 Plasma Stealth and Other Effects in Modern Airdynamics 263
11.9 Conclusion 266
References 266
12 Ion Assist, and Its Different Applications 269
12.1 Introduction 269
12.2 Ion Beam Sputtering 270
12.3 Ion Assisted Deposition 272
12.4 Biased Target Deposition 278
12.5 Ion Assisted Magnetron Deposition with Magnetron Electrons for Ion Beam Neutralization 280
12.5.1 Ion Afflux and Ion Assist 281
12.6 Ion Assisted Magnetron Discharge for Enhancement of Cathode Sputtering 283
12.6.1 Magnetron Discharge with Ion Beam Assist 283
12.7 Conclusion 285
References 285
13 Magnetron with Non–equipotential Cathode 287
13.1 Introduction 287
13.2 Short History of Magnetron Development 288
13.3 Magnetron with Segments at Different Potentials 292
13.4 The Phenomenology of a Magnetron Discharge with NEC 304
13.5 Conclusion 306
References 307
Index 309

Nota biograficzna:
Viacheslav Zhurin is currently president of Colorado Advanced Technology LLC, a company at the cutting edge of the field of ion sources. He has a strong standing with manufacturers and users of ion sources in academe and industry, and has published numerous papers on the different aspects.