High–Intensity X–rays – Interaction with Matter: Processes in Plasmas, Clusters, Molecules and Solids

Filling the need for a book bridging the effect of matter on X–ray radiation and the interaction of x–rays with plasmas, this monograph provides comprehensive coverage of the topic. As such, it presents and explains such powerful new X–ray sources as X–ray free–electron lasers, as well as short pulse interactions with solids, clusters, molecules, and plasmas, and X–ray matter interactions as a diagnostic tool.
Equally useful for researchers and practitioners working in the field.


Spis treści:
Preface XIII
1 Introduction1
1.1 Examples for the Application of X–Ray–Matter Interaction 3
1.1.1 Medical Imaging with X Rays 4
1.1.2 X–Ray Scattering and Spectroscopy 5
1.1.3 Short–Pulse X–Ray Probing of Matter 7
1.2 Electromagnetic Spectrum 7
1.3 X–Ray Light Sources 9
1.3.1 X–Ray Tubes 9
1.3.2 Laser–Produced X–Ray Sources 10
1.3.3 X–Ray Lasers 11
1.3.4 Z–Pinch 12
1.3.5 Novel X–Ray Source Capabilities 13
1.4 Fundamental Models to Describe X–Ray–Matter Interaction 14
1.4.1 Maxwell Equations 14
1.4.2 Relation of Maxwell Equations to Quantum Electrodynamics and the Semiclassical Treatment 17
1.5 Introduction to X–Ray–Matter Interaction Processes 19
1.5.1 Atomic and Electronic X–Ray–Matter Interaction Processes 19
1.5.2 Energy and Time Scales 21
1.5.3 Length Scales 22
1.5.4 Size Effects 24
1.6 Databases Relevant to Photon–Matter Interaction 24
References 25
2 AtomicPhysics 29
2.1 Atomic States 29
2.1.1 Center–of–Mass Motion 30
2.1.2 Constants of Motion 31
2.1.3 Atoms with a Single Electron 32
2.1 .3.1 One–Body Schrödinger Equation 32
2.1.3.2 The Radial Schrödinger Equation 32
2.1.3.3 The Schrödinger Equation as the Nonrelativistic Limit of the Dirac Equation 33
2.1.4 Atoms with Multiple Electrons 36
2.1.5 The Periodic System of the Elements 37
2.1.6 Screened Hydrogenic Model 39
2.1.6.1 Semiclassical Approximation (WKB Method) 40
2.1.6.2 Semiclassical Approximation for Single Electrons in a Centrally Symmetric Field 41
2.1.6.3 The Screened Hydrogenic Ionization Model 43
2.2 Atomic Processes 44
2.2.1 Interaction of Atoms with Photons 45
2.2.1.1 Quantization of Free Electromagnetic Fields 46
2.2.1.2 Dipole Approximation in the X–Ray Regime 48
2.2.1.3 Principle of Detailed Balance 48
2.2.2 Radiative Excitation and Spontaneous Decay 49
2.2.3 Photoionization and Radiative Recombination 51
2.2.4 Electron Impact Ionization and Three–Body Recombination 52
2.2.5 Electron Impact Excitation and Deexcitation 53
2.2.6 Autoionization and Dielectronic Recombination 54
2.2.7 Shake Processes 55
2.3 Effect of Plasma Environment 56
2.3.1 Modification of Atomic Structure 57
2.3.1.1 Physical Models 57
2.3.1.2 Chemical Models 57
2.3.1.3 Energy Level Shifts 58
2.3.2 Modification of Atomic Processes 59
References 59
3 Scattering of X–Ray Radiation 61
3.1 Scattering by Free Charges 61
3.1.1 Classical Description (Thomson Formula) 61
3.1.2 Relativistic Quantum–Mechanical Description (Klein–Nishina Formula) 63
3.2 Scattering by Atoms and Ions 64
3.2.1 Quantum–Mechanical Treatment of Scattering 64
3.2.1.1 Scattering by Atoms 65
3.2.1.2 Tabulated Atomic Structure Factors 68
3.3 Sc attering by Gases, Liquids, and Amorphous Solids 69
3.4 Scattering by Plasmas 73
3.5 Scattering by Crystals 76
3.5.1 Kinematic Diffraction by Crystals 77
3.5.1.1 Diffraction by a Lattice of Finite Volume 77
3.5.1.2 Structure Factors for Monoatomic Crystals 79
3.5.1.3 Finite Temperature 81
3.5.1.4 Experimental Configurations 82
3.5.2 Dynamical Diffraction by Crystals 83
3.5.2.1 Diffraction from a Single Layer of Atoms 84
3.5.2.2 Kinematical Diffraction from Several Layers of Atoms 85
3.5.2.3 Index of Refraction 87
3.5.2.4 Reflection from a Perfect Crystal 88
References 90
4 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation 93
4.1 ElectromagneticWaves in Matter 93
4.1.1 Scalar Wave Propagation 95
4.1.2 Laser Modes 96
4.2 Reflection and Refraction at Interfaces 97
4.2.1 Electromagnetic Field in the Reflecting Medium 100
4.2.2 Polarization by Reflection 100
4.2.3 Critical Angle 102
4.2.4 Evanescent Waves for Grazing–Incidence Reflection 103
4.3 Reflection by Thin Films, Bilayers, and Multilayers 105
4.3.1 Optical Properties of a Multilayer Stack 105
4.3.2 Field Intensity in the Multilayer Stack 107
4.3.3 Multilayers in the X–Ray Regime 107
4.3.4 Reflection by Thin Films and Bilayers 110
4.4 Dispersive Interaction of Wavepackets with Materials 111
4.4.1 Interaction with Optical Elements 113
4.5 Kramers–Kronig Relation 114
References 115
5 ElectronDynamics117
5.1 Transition of Solids into Plasmas 118
5.2 Directional Emission of Photoelectrons 119
5.3 Electron Scattering 122
5.3.1 Elastic Electron Scattering 124
5.3.1.1 Elastic Scattering of Fast Electrons 125
5.3.1.2 Elastic Scatteri ng of Slow Electrons 126
5.3.1.3 Elastic Scattering in Solids 126
5.3.2 Inelastic Electron Scattering 128
5.3.2.1 Inelastic Scattering of Fast Electrons 128
5.3.2.2 Inelastic Scattering of Slow Electrons 128
5.4 Energy Loss Mechanisms 130
5.4.1 Energy Loss through Plasmon Excitation 130
5.4.2 Energy Loss through Phonon Excitation 131
5.5 Electron Dynamics in Plasmas 132
5.6 Statistical Description of Electron Dynamics 132
5.7 Bremsstrahlung Emission and Inverse Bremsstrahlung Absorption 133
5.7.1 Electron–Ion Bremsstrahlung 133
5.7.2 Electron–Electron Bremsstrahlung 134
5.7.3 Inverse Bremsstrahlung Absorption 134
5.8 Charge Trapping in Small Objects 135
5.8.1 Charge Trapping in Solid, Spherical Objects 135
5.8.2 Charge Trapping in Semi–infinite Objects and Thin Films 136
References 138
6 Short X–Ray Pulses 141
6.1 Characteristics of Short X–Ray Pulses 142
6.1.1 Coherence and Photon Statistics 142
6.1.2 Chirped X–Ray Pulses 143
6.1.3 Bandwidth–Limited X–Ray Pulses 144
6.1.4 Propagation in Free Space 146
6.2 Generating Short X–Ray Pulses 147
6.2.1 Short–Pulse X–Ray Sources 147
6.2.1.1 High–Harmonic Generation 148
6.2.1.2 Thomson Scattering 148
6.2.1.3 Ultrafast X–Ray Tubes 148
6.2.1.4 Laser Plasma Sources 149
6.2.1.5 Synchrotrons 149
6.2.1.6 Energy Recovery Linacs 151
6.2.1.7 X–Ray Free–Electron Lasers 151
6.2.2 Reducing Pulse Lengths through Time–Slicing 153
6.2.3 Reducing Pulse Length through Pulse Compression 154
6.2.4 Generating Ultrashort X–Ray Pulses 155
6.3 Characterizing Short X–Ray Pulses 155
6.3.1 X–Ray Streak Cameras 156
6.3.2 Correlation Methods 156
6.3.3 Examples 157
6.4 Characteristic Time Scales in Matter 158
6.5 Short–Pulse X–Ray–Matter Interaction Processes 159
6.5.1 Atomic Processes 160
6.5.2 Fast Structural Changes 160
6.6 Single–Pulse X–Ray Optics 162
References 164
7 High–Intensity Effects in the X–Ray Regime 169
7.1 Intensity and Electric Field of Intense X–Ray Sources 170
7.2 High–X–Ray–Intensity Effects in Atoms 171
7.2.1 Multiphoton Absorption 172
7.2.1.1 Multiphoton Absorption Cross Section 172
7.2.1.2 Two–Photon Absorption by Hydrogen 172
7.2.2 Tunneling Ionization 174
7.2.3 Onset of Strong Photon–Field Effects 175
7.2.4 Multiple Ionization and Hollow Atoms 176
7.2.5 Stabilization of Atoms 176
7.3 Nonlinear Optics 178
7.3.1 Nonlinear Optics in the Visible Regime 178
7.3.2 Nonlinear Optics in the X–Ray Regime 179
7.3.2.1 Nonlinear Optics with Quasi–Free Electrons 179
7.3.2.2 Magnitude of Nonlinear Effects in the X–Ray Regime 182
7.4 High–Intensity Effects in Plasmas 182
7.4.1 Plasma Wakefield Accelerators 183
7.4.2 Plasma Instabilities at High Intensities 183
7.5 High–Field Physics 184
7.5.1 High–Intensity QED Effects: Pair Production 185
7.5.2 Experimental Verification of Quantum Field Theory 186
References 187
8 Dynamics of X–Ray–Irradiated Materials 191
8.1 X–Ray–Matter Interaction Time Scales 191
8.2 The Influence of X–Ray Heating on Absorption 192
8.2.1 Temperature–Dependence of X–Ray Absorption 192
8.2.2 Time Dependence of X–Ray–Matter Interaction 195
8.2.3 Pulse Length Dependence of X–Ray Absorption 196
8.3 Thermodynamics of Phase Transformation 199
8.3.1 Solid–Liquid Transitions 200
8.3.2 Liquid–Gas Transition 202
8.3.3 Solid–Gas Transition 202
8.3.4 Example Phase Diagram 203
8.4 Ablation 203
8.5 Intensity Dependence of X–Ray–Matter Interaction 205
8.5.1 Interaction of Short X–Ray Pulses with Crystals 207
8.6 X–Ray–Induced Mechanical Damage 207
8.7 X–Ray Damage in Inertial Confinement Fusion 208
8.8 X–Ray Damage in Semiconductors 209
8.8.1 X–Ray Damage in Semiconductor Processing 209
8.8.2 X–Ray–Damage–Resistant Semiconductors 209
8.9 Damage to Biomolecules in X–Ray Imaging 210
References 212
9 Simulation of X–Ray–Matter Interaction 215
9.1 Models for Different Time– and Length Scales 215
9.2 Atomistic Models 216
9.2.1 Molecular Dynamics and Particle–in–Cell Models 217
9.2.1.1 Molecular Dynamics Models 217
9.2.1.2 Particle–in–Cell Method 218
9.2.1.3 Hybrid Methods 218
9.2.1.4 Quantum Molecular Dynamics Models 219
9.2.2 Monte Carlo Models 219
9.2.2.1 Monte Carlo Methods to Sample Phase Space 220
9.2.2.2 Monte Carlo Methods to Sample Particle Trajectories 220
9.3 Statistical Kinetics Models 224
9.3.1 Kinetics Equations 224
9.3.1.1 Klimontovich Distribution 224
9.3.1.2 Liouville Distribution 225
9.3.1.3 BBGKY Hierarchy 225
9.3.1.4 Boltzmann and Vlasov Equation 226
9.3.1.5 Fokker–Planck Equation 227
9.3.2 Atomic Kinetics 228
9.3.3 Using Statistical Kine tics Models to Describe X–Ray–Matter Interaction 228
9.4 Hydrodynamic Models 229
9.4.1 Fluid Models 229
9.4.2 UsingHydrodynamicModels to Describe X–Ray–Matter Interaction 233
References 235
10 Examples of X–Ray–Matter Interaction 239
10.1 Interaction of Intense X–Ray Radiation with Atoms and Molecules 239
10.2 Interaction of Intense X–Ray Pulses with Atomic Clusters 240
10.2.1 Interaction of Clusters with High–Intensity 12.7–eV Radiation 241
10.2.2 Interaction of Clusters with High–Intensity 40– to 100–eV Radiation 242
10.2.3 Interaction of Clusters with High–Intensity Hard X–Ray Radiation 243
10.3 Biological Imaging 245
10.3.1 Image Formation 245
10.3.2 Protein X–Ray Crystallography 246
10.3.3 Coherent Diffractive Imaging 247
10.3.3.1 Dynamic Damage Limits 249
10.3.3.2 Coherent Diffractive Imaging at X–Ray Free–Electron Lasers 250
10.3.4 Outlook 250
10.4 X–Ray Scattering Diagnostics of Dense Plasmas 251
10.4.1 Experimental Setups 252
10.4.2 Collective and Noncollective Scattering 254
10.4.3 Theoretical Description of Inelastic X–Ray Scattering 255
References 256
Index 263

Nota biograficzna:
Stefan Hau–Riege is project leader in the Physics division of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL), working on x–ray free–electron–laser interactions with materials. He received his Ph.D. in Materials Science from the MIT and a M.S. in Solid–State Physics and Applied Mathematics from the University of Hamburg, Germany.