Industrial High Pressure Applications: Processes, Equipment, and Safety

Industrial high pressure processes open the door to many reactions that are not possible under ′normal′ conditions. These are to be found in such different areas as polymerization, catalytic reactions, separations, oil and gas recovery, food processing, biocatalysis and more. The most famous high pressure process is the so–called Haber–Bosch process used for fertilizers and which was awarded a Nobel prize. Following an introduction on historical development, the current state, and future trends, this timely and comprehensive publication goes on to describe different industrial processes, including methanol and other catalytic syntheses, polymerization and renewable energy processes, before covering safety and equipment issues. With its excellent choice of industrial contributions, this handbook offers high quality information not found elsewhere, making it invaluable reading for a broad and interdisciplinary audience.

Preface XIII List of Contributors XV Part One Introduction 1 1 Historical Retrospect on High–Pressure Processes 3 Rudolf Eggers References 6 2 Basic Engineering Aspects 7 Rudolf Eggers 2.1 What are the Specifics of High–Pressure Processes? 7 2.2 Thermodynamic Aspects: Phase Equilibrium 9 2.3 Software and Data Collection 10 2.4 Phase Equilibrium: Experimental Methods and Measuring Devices 10 2.5 Interfacial Phenomena and Data 12 2.6 Material Properties and Transport Data for Heat and Mass Transfer 20 2.7 Evaporation and Condensation at High Pressures 37 2.7.1 Evaporation 37 2.8 Condensation 43 References 46 Part Two Processes 49 3 Catalytic and Noncatalytic Chemical Synthesis 51 Joachim Rüther, Ivo Müller, and Reinhard Michel 3.1 Thermodynamics as Driver for Selection of High Pressure 51 3.1.1 Chemical Equilibrium: Law of Mass Action 51 3.1.2 Reaction Kinetics 53 3.1.3 Phase Equilibria and Transport Phenomena 55 3.2 Ammonia Synthesis Process 55 3.2.1 Basics and Principles 56 3.2.2 History of the Ammonia Process 57 3.2.3 Development of Process and Pressure 58 3.2.4 Special Aspects 63 3.3 Urea Process 64 3.3.1 Basics and Principles 65 3.3.2 History of Urea Process 67 3.3.3 Integration of Ammonia and Urea Processes 71 3.3.4 Special Construction Materials 71 3.4 General Aspects of HP Equipment 72 3.4.1 Multilayered Vessels 73 3.4.2 Recommendations to Vessel Design 73 3.4.3 Gaskets and Bolting 74 References 75 4 Low–Density Polyethylene High–Pressure Process 77 Dieter Littmann, Giulia Mei, Diego Mauricio Castaneda–Zuniga, Christian–Ulrich Schmidt, and Gerd Mannebach 4.1 Introduction 77 4.1.1 Historical Background 77 4.1.2 Properties and Markets 77 4.1.3 Polyethylene High–Pressure Processes 78 4.1.4 Latest Developments 78 4.2 Reaction Kinetics and Thermodynamics 78 4.2.1 Initiation 79 4.2.2 Propagation 79 4.2.3 Chain Transfer 80 4.2.4 Termination 81 4.2.5 Reaction Kinetics 81 4.3 Process 82 4.3.1 General Process Description 82 4.3.2 Autoclave Reactor 84 4.3.3 Tubular Reactor 85 4.3.4 Safety 88 4.4 Products and Properties 89 4.4.1 Blown Film 89 4.4.2 Extrusion Coating 90 4.4.3 Injection Molding 90 4.4.4 Wire and Cable 90 4.4.5 Blow Molding 90 4.4.6 Copolymers 91 4.5 Simulation Tools and Advanced Process Control 91 4.5.1 Introduction 91 4.5.2 Off–Line Applications 91 4.5.2.1 Flow Sheet Simulations 91 4.5.2.2 Steady–State Simulation of the Tubular Reactor 92 4.5.2.3 Dynamic Simulation of the Process 92 4.5.3 Online Application 93 4.5.3.1 Soft Sensors 93 4.5.3.2 Advanced Process Control 94 References 96 5 High–Pressure Homogenization for the Production of Emulsions 97 Heike P. Schuchmann, Née Karbstein, Lena L. Hecht, Marion Gedrat, and Karsten Köhler 5.1 Motivation: Why High–Pressure Homogenization for Emulsification Processes? 97 5.2 Equipment: High–Pressure Homogenizers 98 5.2.1 Principal Design 98 5.2.2 Disruption Systems for High–Pressure Homogenization 98 5.2.2.1 Valves 98 5.2.2.2 Orifices and Nozzles 99 5.2.3 Flow Conditions 100 5.2.3.1 Flow Conditions in the Disruption System 100 5.2.3.2 Effect of Flow Conditions in Homogenization Valves on Emulsion Droplets 101 5.2.4 Simultaneous Emulsification and Mixing (SEM) Systems 101 5.3 Processes: Emulsification and Process Functions 103 5.3.1 Droplet Disruption in High–Pressure Valves 103 5.3.2 Droplet Coalescence in Homogenization Valves 104 5.3.3 Droplet Agglomeration in Homogenization Valves 107 5.4 Homogenization Processes Using SEM–Type Valves 107 5.4.1 Dairy Processes 107 5.4.2 Pickering Emulsions 109 5.4.3 Melt Homogenization 111 5.4.4 Emulsion Droplets as Templates for Hybrid (Core–Shell) Nanoparticle Production 112 5.4.5 Submicron Emulsion Droplets as Nanoreactors 114 5.4.6 Nanoparticle Deagglomeration and Formulation of Nanoporous Carriers for Bioactives 116 5.5 Summary and Outlook 117 References 118 6 Power Plant Processes: High–Pressure–High–Temperature Plants 123 Alfons Kather and Christian Mehrkens 6.1 Introduction 123 6.2 Coal–Fired Steam Power Plants 125 6.2.1 Thermodynamics and Power Plant Efficiency 125 6.2.2 Configuration of Modern Steam Power Plants 127 6.3 Steam Generator 130 6.3.1 Steam Generator Design 130 6.3.2 Membrane Wall 134 6.3.3 Final Superheater Heating Surface 135 6.3.4 Final Superheater Outlet Header and Live Steam Piping 136 6.4 High–Pressure Steam Turbines 138 6.4.1 Configuration of Modern Steam Turbines 138 6.4.2 Design Features of High–Pressure Steam Turbines 139 6.5 Summary and Outlook 142 References 142 7 High–Pressure Application in Enhanced Crude Oil Recovery 145 Philip T. Jaeger, Mohammed B. Alotaibi, and Hisham A. Nasr–El–Din 7.1 Introduction 145 7.1.1 Principal Phenomena in Oil and Gas Reservoirs 145 7.1.2 Reservoir Conditions 145 7.2 Fundamentals 147 7.2.1 Miscibility at Elevated Pressures 147 7.2.2 Physical Chemical Properties of Reservoir Systems at Elevated Pressures 148 7.2.2.1 Density 148 7.2.2.2 Rheology 150 7.2.2.3 Interfacial Tension 151 7.2.2.4 Wetting 151 7.2.2.5 Diffusivity 153 7.2.2.6 Permeability 154 7.3 Enhanced Oil Recovery 155 7.3.1 Water Flooding 157 7.3.2 Chemical Injection 158 7.3.3 Thermal Recovery 158 7.3.4 Gas Injection 159 7.3.5 Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage (CCS) in EOR 160 7.3.6 Combustion 160 7.4 Oil Reservoir Stimulation 161 7.5 Heavy Oil Recovery 161 7.6 Hydrates in Oil Recovery 162 7.7 Equipment 163 7.7.1 Pumps 163 7.7.2 Pipes 164 7.7.3 Seals 164 7.7.4 Separators 165 References 166 8 Supercritical Processes 169 Rudolf Eggers and Eduard Lack 8.1 Introduction 169 8.2 Processing of Solid Material 172 8.2.1 Isobaric Process 174 8.2.2 Single or Cascade Operation with Multistep Separation 174 8.2.3 Cascade Operation and Multistep Separation 175 8.2.4 Extractable Substances 175 8.2.4.1 Selective Extraction 176 8.2.4.2 Total Extraction 176 8.2.5 Pretreatment of Raw Materials 176 8.2.6 Design Criteria 177 8.2.7 Design with the Use of Basket 178 8.2.8 Thermodynamic Conditions 179 8.2.9 Mass Transfer 179 8.2.10 Hydrodynamics 182 8.2.11 Energy Optimization 182 8.2.12 Pump Process 182 8.2.13 Compressor Process 183 8.2.14 Some Applications of Supercritical Extraction of Solids 184 8.2.14.1 Decaffeination of Green Coffee Beans 184 8.2.14.2 Production of Hops Extract 184 8.2.14.3 Extraction of Spices and Herbs 186 8.2.14.4 Extraction of Essential Oils 186 8.2.14.5 Production of Natural Antioxidants 188 8.2.14.6 Production of High–Value Fatty Oils 189 8.2.14.7 Extraction of c–Linolenic Acid 189 8.2.14.8 Cleaning and Decontamination of Cereals Like Rice 189 8.2.14.9 Impregnation of Wood and Polymers 190 8.2.14.10 Cleaning of Cork 193 8.2.14.11 Economics – Especially Investment Cost for Multipurpose Plants 193 8.3 Processing of Liquids 194 8.4 Future Trends 202 8.4.1 Drying of Aerogels 202 8.4.2 Treating of Microorganisms 203 8.4.3 Use of Supercritical Fluids for the Generation of Renewable Energy 204 8.4.4 Gas–Assisted High–Pressure Processes 205 References 206 9 Impact of High–Pressure on Enzymes 211 Leszek Kulisiewicz, Andreas Wierschem, Cornelia Rauh, and Antonio Delgado 9.1 Introduction 211 9.2 Influence of Pressure on Biomatter 212 9.3 Influence of Pressure on the Kinetics of Enzyme Inactivation 215 9.4 Technological Aspects 218 9.5 Summary 226 References 227 10 High Pressure in Renewable Energy Processes 235 Nicolaus Dahmen and Andrea Kruse 10.1 Introduction 235 10.2 Thermochemical Processes 236 10.2.1 Pyrolysis 237 10.2.2 Liquefaction 238 10.2.3 Gasification 240 10.2.3.1 Fixed Bed Gasifier 242 10.2.3.2 Fluidized Bed Gasifiers 243 10.2.3.3 Entrained Flow Gasifiers 244 10.3 Hydrothermal Processes 248 10.3.1 Hydrothermal Carbonization 250 10.3.2 Hydrothermal Liquefaction 251 10.3.3 Hydrothermal Gasification 253 10.3.3.1 Catalytic Hydrothermal Gasification 253 10.3.3.2 Supercritical Hydrothermal Gasification 254 References 256 11 Manufacturing Processes 257 Andrzej Karpinski and Rolf Wink 11.1 Autofrettage: A High–Pressure Process to Improve Fatigue Lifetime 260 11.2 Waterjet Cutting Technology 265 11.2.1 Generation of Waterjets 265 11.2.2 Cutting Process and Parameters 267 11.2.3 High–Pressure Pumps 269 11.2.4 Waterjet Cutting with 6000 bar 272 11.2.5 Cutting Devices 273 11.2.6 New Trends in the Waterjet Cutting 276 11.2.6.1 Abrasive Water Suspension Jet 276 11.2.6.2 Microcutting 276 11.2.6.3 Medical Applications 277 References 278 Part Three Process Equipment and Safety 283 12 High–Pressure Components 285 Waldemar Hiller and Matthias Zeiger 12.1 Materials for High–Pressure Components 285 12.1.1 Steel Selection Criteria 286 12.1.2 High–Strength Low–Alloy Steel 287 12.1.3 Weldable Fine–Grain and High–Temperature Structural Steels 287 12.1.4 High–Strength High–Alloy Steels 287 12.1.5 Austenitic Stainless Steels 288 12.1.6 Austenitic–Ferritic Duplex Steels 288 12.1.7 Chromium–Molybdenum Hydrogen–Resistant Steels 288 12.1.8 Fatigue and Fracture Properties of High–Strength Steels 289 12.2 Pressure Vessels 290 12.2.1 Leak Before Burst 292 12.2.2 Welded Pressure Vessels 292 12.2.3 Nonwelded Pressure Vessels 294 12.2.4 Prestressing Techniques 298 12.2.5 Sealing Systems 300 12.3 Heat Exchangers 301 12.4 Valves 303 12.5 Piping 304 References 309 13 High–Pressure Pumps and Compressors 311 Eberhard Schluecker 13.1 Selection of Machinery 311 13.2 Influence of the Fluid on Selection and Design of the Machinery 313 13.3 Design Standards for High–Pressure Machines 314 13.4 Materials and Materials Testing 316 13.5 High–Pressure Centrifugal Pumps and High–Pressure Turbocompressors 317 13.6 Rotating Positive Displacement Machines 319 13.6.1 Discharge Rate 319 13.6.2 Gear Pumps 320 13.6.3 Screw Pumps 321 13.6.4 Progressing Cavity Pump 323 13.7 Reciprocating Positive Displacement Machines 323 13.7.1 Drive Technology for Reciprocating Positive Displacement Machines 324 13.7.2 Flow Behavior of Reciprocating Positive Displacement Machines 325 13.7.3 Pulsation Damping 327 13.7.4 Design Versions 328 13.7.4.1 Vertical Pump Head for 70 MPa 328 13.7.4.2 Horizontal Pump Head with Y–Piece for 300 MPa 329 13.7.4.3 Diaphragm Pump Heads 329 13.7.4.4 Piston Compressor for 30 MPa at the Maximum 330 13.7.4.5 Compressor for 300 MPa 332 13.7.4.6 Piston Compressor for 1400 MPa 333 References 334 14 High–Pressure Measuring Devices and Test Equipment 335 Arne Pietsch 14.1 Introduction 335 14.2 Process Data Measuring – Online 336 14.2.1 Sensor Choice and Installation 337 14.2.2 Pressure and Differential Pressure 338 14.2.3 Temperature 341 14.2.4 Flow 343 14.2.5 Fluid Level 350 14.2.6 Density 351 14.2.7 Viscosity 351 14.2.8 Concentration – Solute in High–Pressure Gases and Fluids 352 14.2.9 Concentration – Gas Traces Dissolved in Liquids 358 14.3 Lab Determination – Additional Offline Test Equipment 359 14.3.1 Phase Equilibrium 359 14.3.2 Magnetic Sorption Balance 362 14.3.3 Interfacial Tension and Wetting 362 14.3.4 Gas Hydrates 363 14.3.5 Other Properties Online 364 14.4 Safety Aspects 364 14.5 Future 366 References 367 15 Sizing of High–Pressure Safety Valves for Gas Service 369 Jürgen Schmidt 15.1 Standard Valve Sizing Procedure 369 15.2 Limits of the Standard Valve Sizing Procedure 371 15.3 Development of a Sizing Method for Real Gas Applications 372 15.3.1 Equation of State and Real Gas Factor 375 15.3.2 Isentropic Exponent 378 15.3.3 Critical Pressure Ratio 379 15.4 Sizing of Safety Valves for Real Gas Flow 380 15.5 Summary 382 Appendix 15.A Calculation of Sizing Coefficient According to EN–ISO 4126–1 and a Real Gas Nozzle Flow Model 383 15.A.1 Inlet Stagnation Conditions 383 15.A.2 Property Data and Coefficients for Ethylene 383 15.A.3 Calculation of Flow Coefficient According to EN–ISO 4126–1 384 15.A.4 Calculation of Flow Coefficient Accounting for Real Gas Effects 385 15.A.5 Approximation of Mass Flux by an Analytical Method (Averaging Method) 386 Appendix 15.B List of Symbols 387 Subscripts 388 References 389 Appendix: International Codes and Standards for High–Pressure Vessels 391 Index 397

Rudolf Eggers has been dealing with basic research and application of high pressure processes since 1977 when he started his industrial career at Thyssen Maschinenbau in Witten and Krupp Industrietechnik in Hamburg. As the head of the process engineering department he became responsible for the introduction of supercritical extraction plants in industrial scale. Prior to that he studied mechanical and process engineering at Technische Universität Hannover (1966 – 1971) and worked as a research assistant at the institute of energy process technique of the Technische Universität Clausthal (1971 – 1977) where he received the PhD degree in 1976. In 1984 he was appointed from industry to a professorship for high pressure processes at the Technische Universität Hamburg–Harburg. Since then Rudolf Eggers supervised a research group. His research fields are aligned to high pressure processes, evaluation of corresponding thermo physical data, interfacial phenomena and heat and mass transfer. In 1988, 1998 and 1999 Rudolf Eggers refused three further appointments from a national research institute and universities in Germany. He is member of scientific comities and author of more than 130 publications, mainly on high pressure processes.

“With its excellent choice of industrial contributions, this handbook offers high quality information not found elsewhere, making it invaluable reading for a broad and interdisciplinary audience.”  ( ETDE Energy Database , 1 March 2013)