An Introduction to Forensic Geoscience

An Introduction to Forensic Geoscience provides fundamental training in geoscience as developed through the lens of its forensic applications. It incorporates a range of topics including geophysical methods of grave detection, the mineralogy of art, identification of microfossils, and comparison of soil trace evidence samples. Each topic is introduced using core concepts that are developed with increasing complexity in order to give readers an understanding of the underlying scientific principles involved and a taste of the wide range of possible forensic uses. A variety of detailed reference tables have been compiled for the text and each chapter contains lists of references to applicable textbooks and journal articles. Examples of real criminal cases are also presented in each chapter to make the connections between theory and real world application. The goal of this book is to give readers a familiarity with the wide range of ways in which geoscience principles and geological materials can be utilized forensically. "... I was struck by its detail, both in the description of relevant interesting case studies and the very extensive description of geoscientific analysis of materials and techniques, together with an associated impressive amount of data, information and interpretive techniques. Being a chartered geologist with five years of forensic geoscience investigations behind me, I can say I was hugely impressed with such an extensive textbook, and feel I could recommend it to forensic geoscientist practitioners and undergraduate students alike." — Dr Jamie K Pringle, Keele University

List of Tables and Figures, vii List of Color Plates, xxv List of Cases, xxviii Preface, xxx Acknowledgments, xxxii 1 A Brief History of Forensic Science and Crime Scene Basics, 1 Scene of the Crime, 14 Processing the Crime Scene, 16 Types of Evidence, 20 Further Reading, 22 References, 23 2 Minerals: The Basic Building Blocks of Geology, 24 Mineralogical Fraud, 24 Minerals, 29 Types of Bonding, 34 Mineral Groups, 43 Properties of Minerals, 46 Summary, 62 Further Reading, 62 References, 62 3 Rocks: Storybooks of the Earth, 63 The Rock Cycle, 65 Properties of Rocks, 67 Igneous Rocks, 69 Sedimentary Rocks, 78 Metamorphic Rocks, 93 Summary, 102 Further Reading, 102 References, 102 4 Maps: Getting a Sense of Place, 103 Global Location Systems, 104 Maps in the United Kingdom, 115 The Global Positioning System, 115 Maps, 117 Remote Sensing and Other Resources, 127 Summary, 130 Further Reading, 130 References, 131 5 Sand: To See the World in a Grain of Sand, 132 An Introduction to Sand, 137 Characterizing Sand, 139 Surface Features, 152 Sample Collection, 155 Sample Preparation, 156 The Stereomicroscope, 157 Forensic Examination of Sand, 157 Common Minerals, 159 Less Common Minerals, 160 Opaque Minerals, 160 Anthropogenic Materials, 160 Summary, 163 Further Reading, 165 References, 166 6 Gems and Gemstones: Those Most Precious of all Minerals, 168 An Introduction to Gemstones, 170 Crystal Forms, 171 The Petrographic Microscope, 175 Light and the Optical Properties of Minerals, 177 The Forensic Identifi cation of Glass, 182 More Optical Properties, 187 Isotropic versus Anisotropic Minerals, 191 Anisotropic Crystals, 193 Other Important Properties of Gems and Gemstones, 201 Identifying Gems and Gemstones, 202 Organic Gemstones, 216 Summary, 218 Further Reading, 218 References, 218 7 Soil: Getting the Dirt on Crime, 220 Introduction to Soils, 223 Soil Horizons, 223 Soil Origins, 225 Phyllosilicates (Sheet Silicates), 227 Some Important Clay Minerals, 231 Soil Classification, 237 Soil Color, 237 Soil Moisture, 242 Particle Size, 243 Sample Collection, 245 Simplified Manual Dry Sieve Method for Particle Size Analysis, 246 Soil Classification Schemes, 249 Soil Survey Maps, 251 USDA Textural Classification, 252 The ASTM Unified Soil Classification System (USCS): D–2487, 253 Scene Examination, 256 Visual Examination of Soil Evidence, 256 Examination Procedures for Soil Samples, 257 An Introduction to X–ray Diffraction Spectrometry (XRD), 264 Interpreting a Diffraction Pattern, 272 Summary, 279 Further Reading, 279 References, 279 8 The Geology of Art, 281 Geologic Media and Art Forgery, 285 Mineral Pigments, 287 Black Pigments, 289 White Pigments, 290 Earth Colors: Red, Yellow, Orange, and Brown Pigments, 295 Blue Pigments, 298 Green Pigments, 302 Collecting a Sample for Microscopic Examination (McCrone, 1982), 305 Raman Spectroscopy, 307 Chromatography, 312 Inks, 314 Summary, 314 Further Reading, 314 References, 315 9 Fossils and Microfossils: Traces of Life, 317 Geologic Time and Index Fossils, 317 An Introduction to Fossils, 322 A Brief Introduction to the Classification of Fossils, 329 Invertebrate Paleontology, 332 Micropaleontology, 354 Collection and Treatment, 358 Scanning Electron Microscope, 368 Is It Legal to Take This Fossil?, 378 Rare–earth Elements, 379 Summary, 379 References, 380 10 Geology and People: Forensic Anthropology and Forensic Archeology, 383 Locating Ground Disturbances, 384 Search, 385 Geophysical Tools, 390 Magnetometry, 390 Electrical Resistivity (ER), 400 Electromagnetic Induction (EMI), 408 Specialized EMI: Metal Detectors, 411 Ground–penetrating Radar (GPR), 412 Search and Post–search Operations, 423 Elemental and Mineralogical Analysis of Human Bone, 424 Summary, 428 Further Reading, 428 References, 428 11 Environmental Forensics: Tracking Pollution to its Source, 431 Water: Our Most Precious Natural Resource, 433 Surface Water, 434 Clean Water Act, 436 CERCLA and SARA, 440 Groundwater, 440 Contaminant Hydrogeology, 448 Safe Drinking Water Act, 450 Water–quality Measurements, 450 Field Water–quality Measurements, 452 Water Contamination, 455 Analytical Techniques for Chemical Fingerprinting, 462 Isotopes in the Environment, 463 Summary, 470 References, 471 Index, 472 Color Plates appear between pages 224 and 225 COMPANION WEBSITE This book has a companion website: www.wiley.com/go/bergslien/forensicgeoscience with Figures and Tables from the book

Elisa Bergslien is an Associate Professor at Buffalo State College. With a background in contaminant hydrogeology, she has been involved with the environmental law aspects of geology for years. In 2005, she begin teaching a Forensic Geoscience course as an elective for a well established Forensic Chemistry program and has been involved in research developing the science behind many of the assumptions used in forensic trace evidence examination. She is currently serving as the Information Officer for the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) Initiative on Forensic Geology.

“Overall, the book is well produced on acid–free, high–quality paper. In addition to the colour plates (also available online), there are many helpful line drawings and a host of Tables with useful information. I suggest that even professional geoscientists involved in forensic work might welcome this book as an aide–memoire. In addition, it is very good value at the price.”  ( Soil Use and Management , 1 December 2012) “The well–written book contains a wealth of information in the form of determinative tables and illustrations.  Anyone interested in geology and forensics will find this a useful resource.  Summing Up: Highly recommended.  Lower–division undergraduates through professionals/practitioners.”  ( Choice , 1 November 2012) "Apart introducing the interested layman to the fascinating applications of geoforensics, “ An Introduction to Forensic Geoscience ” can also be used by teachers and undergraduate students of earth sciences as resourceful “physical geology” textbook, even if the book addresses the U.S. market, as many cited laws or classification schemes are valid only in the States. Students or professionals in forensic sciences will profit from an easily accessible text to geological concepts, which emphasize the strengths – but also the limitations – of geology applied to the prosecution of crimes." David Bressan, Scientific American (11 October 2012)