The Microbiology of Safe Food

Food production is an increasingly complex and global enterprise, and public awareness of poisoning outbreaks is higher than ever. This makes it vital that companies in the food chain maintain scrupulous standards of hygiene and are able to assure customers of the safety of their products.  The Microbiology of Safe Food reviews the production of food and the level of microorganisms that humans ingest, covering both food pathogens and food spoilage organisms. The comprehensive contents include:the dominant foodborne microorganisms;the means of their detection;microbiological criteria and sampling plans;the setting of microbial limits for end–product testing;predictive microbiology;the role of HACCP;the setting of Food Safety Objectives;relevant international regulations and legislation.
This updated and expanded second edition contains much important new information on emerging microbiological issues of concern in food safety, including:microbiological risk assessment;bacterial genomics and bioinformatics;detergents and disinfectants, and the importance of hygiene practice personnel.
The book is essential reading for all those studying food science, technology and food microbiology. It is also a valuable resource for government and food company regulatory personnel, quality control officers, public health inspectors, environmental health officers, food scientists, technologists and microbiologists.
Web–based sources of information and other supporting materials for this book can be found at www.wiley.com/go/forsythe.

Spis treści:
Preface to second edition
Preface to first edition
1 Foodborne infections and intoxications
1.1 Origins of safe food production
1.2 Foodborne illness
1.3 Causes of foodborne illness
1.4 Public perception of safe food
1.5 Host–relat ed issues
1.6 Hygiene hypothesis
1.7 The size of the foodborne illness problem
1.8 Chronic sequelae following foodborne illness
1.9 Changes in antibiotic resistance
1.10 The cost of foodborne diseases
1.11 Control of foodborne pathogens
1.11.1 Example   – the control of Salmonella serovars in poultry
1.11.2 Example   – control of E. coli and Salmonella in fresh produce
1.12 Surveillance programmes
1.12.1 International Food Safety Authorities Network (INFOSAN)
1.12.2 FoodNet in the United States
1.12.3 PulseNet: USE. coli O157:H7, Salmonella and Shigella detection network
1.12.4 European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) and Enter–Net; European surveillance network for salmonellosis and shigatoxic E. coli (STEC)
1.12.5 Foodborne viruses in Europe network
1.12.6 Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF)
1.12.7 Global Salm–Surv (GSS)
1.12.8 Surveillance of ready–to–eat foods in the United Kingdom
1.13 Outbreak investigations
1.13.1 Preliminary outbreak investigation
1.13.2 Case definition and data collection
1.13.3 Data collation and interpretation
1.14 Food terrorism and biocrimes
1.15 Food safety following natural disasters, and conflict
2 Basic aspects
2.1 The microbial world
2.2 Bacterial cell structure
2.2.1 Morphology
2.2.2 Cell membrane structure and the Gram stain
2.2.3 Lipopolysaccharide, O antigen
2.2.4 Flagella (H antigen)
2.2.5 Capsule (Vi antigen)
2.3 Bacterial toxins and other virulence determinants
2.3.1 Bacterial toxins
2.3.2 Pathogenicity islands
2.3.3 Bacterial toxins encoded in bacteriophages
2.4 Microbial growth cycle
2.5 Death kinetics
2.5.1 Expressions
2.5.2 Decimal reduction times (D values) and Z values
2.6 Factors affecting microbial growth
2.6.1 Intrinsic and extrinsic factors affecting mic robial growth
2.6.2 Water activity
2.6.3 pH
2.6.4 Temperature
2.6.5 Interplay of factors affecting microbial growth in foods
2.7 Microbial response to stress
2.7.1 General stress response (GSR)
2.7.2 pH stress
2.7.3 Heat shock
2.7.4 Cold shock
2.7.5 Osmotic shock
2.8 Predictive modelling
2.8.1 Predicting modelling development
2.8.2 Primary models and the Gompertz and Baranyi equations
2.8.3 Secondary models
2.8.4 Tertiary models
2.8.5 Application of predictive microbial modelling
2.9 Bioinformatic studies
2.9.1 Bioinformatics and genomes
2.9.2 S rRNA gene sequence and denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE)
2.9.3 Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli genome sequence
2.9.4 Salmonella evolution and PAIs
2.9.5 E. coli O157:H7 genome sequence
2.9.6 The diversity of the lactic acid bacteria and bifidobacteria
2.9.7 Listeria species genome sequence analysis
2.9.8 Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxin phylogenetic analysis
3 The microbial flora of food and its preservation
3.1 Spoilage micro–organisms
3.1.1 Spoilage micro–organisms
3.1.2 Spoilage of diary products
3.1.3 Spoilage of meat and poultry products
3.1.4 Fish spoilage
3.1.5 Egg spoilage
3.2 Shelf–life indicators
3.3 Methods of preservation and shelf–life extension
3.4 The hurdle concept
3.5 Preservatives
3.5.1 Organic acids
3.5.2 Hydrogen peroxide and lactoperoxidase system
3.5.3 Chelators
3.5.4 Natural antimicrobials
3.5.5 Non–acidic preservatives
3.5.6 Preservation due to weak acids and low pH
3.6 Physical methods of preservation
3.6.1 Preservation by heat treatment
3.6.2 High–pressure treatment
3.6.3 Ohmic heating and radio frequency
3.6.4 Pulsed electric fields
3.6.5 Ultrasound
3.6.6 Intense light pulse
3.6.7 Food irradiation
3.6.8 Reduced oxygen packaging, modified atmosphere pac kaging and active packaging
3.7 Fermented foods
3.7.1 Lactic acid bacteria and their metabolism
3.7.2 Fermented milk products
3.7.3 Fermented meat products
3.7.4 Fermented vegetables
3.7.5 Fermented protein foods; shoyu and miso
3.7.6 Future use of the lactic acid bacteria
3.8 Functional foods; prebiotics, probiotics and synbiotics
3.8.1 Functional foods
3.8.2 Claims of probiotics
3.8.3 Probiotic studies
3.9 Nanotechnology and food preservation
4 Foodborne pathogens
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 The human intestinal tract
4.1.2 Host resistance to foodborne infections
4.1.3 The normal human intestinal flora
4.2 Indicator organisms
4.2.1 Coliforms
4.2.2 Enterobacteriaceae
4.2.3 Enterococci
4.2.4 Bacteriophage
4.3 Foodborne pathogens, bacteria
4.3.1 C. jejuni, Campylobacter coli and Campylobacter lari
4.3.2 Salmonella species
4.3.3 Pathogenic E. coli
4.3.4 Sh. dysenteriae and Sh. sonnei
4.3.5 Listeria monocytogenes
4.3.6 Y. enterocolitica
4.3.7 St. aureus
4.3.8 Cl. perfringens
4.3.9 Cl. botulinum
4.3.10 B. cereus
4.3.11 Vibrio cholerae, V. parahaemolyticus and V. vulnificus
4.3.12 Brucella melitensis, Br. abortus and Br. suis
4.3.13 Aeromonas hydrophila, A. caviae and A. sobria
4.3.14 Plesiomonas shigelloides
4.3.15 Streptococcus and Enterococcus species
4.4 Foodborne pathogens, viruses
4.4.1 Norovirus (formerly known as Norwalk–like viruses and small round structured viruses)
4.4.2 Hepatitis A
4.4.3 Hepatitis E
4.4.4 Rotaviruses
4.4.5 Small round viruses, astroviruses, SLVs, adenoviruses and parvoviruses
4.4.6 Human enteroviruses
4.5 Seafood and shellfish poisoning
4.5.1 Ciguatera poisoning
4.5.2 Scombroid poisoning
4.5.3 Paralytic shellfish poisoning< br>4.5.4 Diarrhoeic shellfish poisoning
4.5.5 Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning
4.5.6 Amnesic shellfish poisoning
4.6 Foodborne pathogens: eucaryotes
4.6.1 Cyclospora cayetanensis
4.6.2 Cryptosporidium parvum
4.6.3 Anisakis simplex
4.6.4 Taenia saginata and Taenia solium
4.6.5 Toxoplasma gondii
4.6.6 Trichinella spiralis
4.7 Mycotoxins
4.7.1 Aflatoxins
4.7.2 Ochratoxins
4.7.3 Fumonisins
4.7.4 Zearalenone
4.7.5 Trichothecenes
4.8 Emerging and uncommon foodborne pathogens
4.8.1 Prions
4.8.2 Cronobacter spp.
4.8.3 Mycobacterium paratuberculosis and pasteurised milk, an emerging pathogen?
4.8.4 Arcobacter genus
4.8.5 Nanobacteria
5 Methods of detection and characterisation
5.1 Prologue
5.2 Conventional methods
5.2.1 Culture media
5.2.2 Sublethally injured cells
5.2.3 Viable but non–culturable bacteria (VNC)
5.3 Rapid methods
5.3.1 Sample preparation
5.3.2 Separation and concentration of target
5.4 Rapid end–detection methods
5.4.1 ELISA and antibody–based detection systems
5.4.2 Reversed passive latex agglutination (RPLA)
5.4.3 Impedance (conductance) microbiology
5.4.4 ATP bioluminescence techniques and hygiene monitoring
5.4.5 Protein detection
5.4.6 Flow cytometry
5.4.7 Nucleic acid probes and the polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
5.4.8 Microarrays
5.4.9 Biosensors
5.5 Molecular typing methods
5.5.1 Pulsed–field gel electrophoresis (PFGE)
5.5.2 Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP)
5.5.3 Multiple–locus variable–number tandem–repeats (MLVA)
5.5.4 Multilocus sequence typing (MLST)
5.6 Specific detection procedures
5.6.1 Aerobic plate count (APC)
5.6.2 Salmonella serovars
5.6.3 Campylobacter
5.6.4 Enterobacteriaceae and E. coli
5.6.5 Pathogenic E. coli, including E. coli O157:H7
5.6.6 Shigella spp.
5.6.7 Cronobacter spp.
5.6.8 L. monocytogenes
5.6.9 St. aureus
5.6.10 Clostridium perfringens
5.6.11 Bacillus cereus, B. subtilis and B. licheniformis
5.6.12 Mycotoxins
5.6.13 Viruses
5.7 Accreditation schemes
6 Microbiological criteria
6.1 Background to microbiological criteria and end–product testing
6.2 International Commission on Microbiological Specifications for Foods
(ICMSF)
6.3 Codex Alimentarius principles for the establishment and application of microbiological criteria
6.4 Sampling plans
6.5 Variables plans
6.6 Attributes sampling plan
6.6.1 Two–class plan
6.6.2 Three–class plan
6.7 Principles
6.7.1 Defining a ‘lot’ of food
6.7.2 Sample unit number
6.7.3 Operating characteristic curve
6.7.4 Producer risk and consumer risk
6.7.5 Stringency of two– and three–class plans, setting n and c
6.7.6 Setting the values for m and M
6.8 Microbiological limits
6.8.1 Definitions
6.8.2 Limitations of microbiological testing
6.9 Examples of sampling plans
6.9.1 Egg products
6.9.2 Milk and milk products
6.9.3 Processed meats
6.9.4 Cereals and cereal products
6.9.5 Cook–chill and cook–freeze products
6.9.6 Seafoods
6.10 Implemented microbiological criteria
6.10.1 Microbiological criteria in the European Union
6.10.2 EU directives specifying microbiological standards for foods
6.11 UK guidelines for ready–to–eat foods
7 Hygienic production practices
7.1 Contribution of food handlers to foodborne illness
7.2 Personal hygiene and training
7.3 Cleaning
7.4 Detergents and disinfectants
7.5 Microbial biofilms
7.6 Assessment of cleaning and disinfection efficiency
8 Food safety management tools
8.1 The manufacture of hygienic food
8.2 Microbiological safety of food in world trade
8.3 Consumer pressure effect on food processing
8.4 The management of hazards in food which is in international trade
8.5 HACCP
8.6 Prerequisite programme
8.7 Outline of HACCP
8.7.1 Food hazards
8.7.2 Preparation for HACCP
8.7.3 Principle : hazard analysis
8.7.4 Principle : critical control points
8.7.5 Principle : critical limits
8.7.6 Principle : CCP monitoring
8.7.7 Principle : corrective actions
8.7.8 Principle : verification
8.7.9 Principle : record keeping
8.8 Microbiological criteria and HACCP
8.9 Microbiological hazards and their control
8.9.1 Sources of microbiological hazards
8.9.2 Temperature control of microbiological hazards
8.9.3 Non–temperature control of microbiological hazards
8.10 HACCP plans
8.10.1 Production of pasteurised milk
8.10.2 Swine slaughter in the abattoir
8.10.3 Chilled food manufacture
8.10.4 Generic models
8.11 GMP and GHP
8.12 Quality systems
8.13 TQM
9 Microbiological risk assessment
9.1 Risk analysis and microbiological risk assessment
9.2 Origin of microbiological risk assessment
9.3 Microbiological risk assessment – an overview
9.4 Microbiological risk assessment – structure
9.4.1 Risk assessment
9.4.2 Risk management
9.4.3 Risk communication
9.5 Risk assessment
9.5.1 Statement of purpose
9.5.2 Hazard identification
9.5.3 Exposure assessment
9.5.4 Hazard characterisation
9.5.5 Dose–response assessment
9.5.6 Dose–response models
9.5.7 Dose and infection
9.5.8 Risk characterisation
9.5.9 Production of a formal report
9.5.10 Triangular distributions and Monte Carlo simulation
9.6 Risk management
9.6.1 Risk assessment policy
9.6.2 Risk profiling
9.7 Food safety objectives
9.8 Risk communication
9.9 Future developments in microbiological risk assessment
9.9.1 International methodology an d guidelines
9.9.2 Data
9.9.3 Training courses and use of resources
10 Application of microbiological risk assessment
10.1 Salmonella risk assessments
10.1.1 S. Enteritidis in shell eggs and egg products
10.1.2 Hazard identification and hazard characterisation of Salmonella in broilers and eggs
10.1.3 Exposure assessment of Salmonella spp. in broilers
10.1.4 Salmonella spp. in cooked chicken
10.1.5 Salmonella spp. in cooked patty
10.1.6 Poultry FARM
10.1.7 Domestic and sporadic human salmonellosis
10.2 Campylobacter risk assessments
10.2.1 C. jejuni risk from fresh chicken
10.2.2 Risk profile for pathogenic species of Campylobacter in Denmark
10.2.3 Risk assessment of C. jejuni in broilers
10.2.4 Campylobacter fluoroquinolone resistance
10.3 L. monocytogenes risk assessment
10.3.1 L. monocytogenes hazard identification and hazard characterisation in ready–to–eat foods
10.3.2 L. monocytogenes exposure assessment in RTE foods
10.3.3 Relative risk of L. monocytogenes in selected RTE foods
10.3.4 L. monocytogenes in EU trade
10.3.5 L. monocytogenes in meat balls
10.3.6 Listeriosis from RTE meat products
10.4 E. coli O157 risk assessment
10.4.1 E. coli O157:H7 in ground beef
10.5 Bacillus cereus risk assessment
10.5.1 B. cereus risk assessment
10.6 Vibrio parahaemolyticus risk assessment
10.6.1 Public health impact of V. parahaemolyticus in raw molluscan shellfish
10.7 Cronobacter spp. (Enterobacter sakazakii) and Salmonella in powdered infant formula
10.8 Viral risk assessments
10.8.1 Viral contamination of shellfish and coastal waters
11 International control of microbiological hazards in foods: regulations and authorities
11.1 World Health Organisation, global fo