Olives and Olive Oil as Functional Foods: Bioactivity, Chemistry and Processing

The only single–source reference on the science of olives and olive oil nutrition and health benefits

Olives and Olive Oil as Functional Foods is the first comprehensive reference on the science of olives and olive oil. While the main focus of the book is on the fruit s renowned health–sustaining properties, it also provides an in–depth coverage of a wide range of topics of vital concern to producers and researchers, including post–harvest handling, packaging, analysis, sensory evaluation, authentication, waste product utilization, global markets, and much more.

People have been cultivating olives for more than six millennia, and olives and olive oil have been celebrated in songs and legends for their life–sustaining properties since antiquity. However, it is only within the last several decades that the unique health benefits of their consumption have become the focus of concerted scientific studies. It is now known that olives and olive oil contain an abundance of phenolic antioxidants, as well as the anti–cancer compounds such as squalene and terpenoids. This centerpiece of the Mediterranean diet has been linked to a greatly reduced risk of heart disease and lowered cancer risk. Bringing together contributions from some of the world s foremost experts on the subject, this book:  

Addresses the importance of olives and olive oil for the agricultural economy and the relevance of its bioactive components to human health Explores the role that olive oil plays in reducing oxidative stress in cells–a well–known risk factor in human health Provides important information about new findings on olive oil and lipids which reviews the latest research Explores topics of interest to producers, processors, and researchers, including the fruit s chemical composition, processing considerations, quality control, safety, traceability, and more 

Edited by two scientists world–renowned for their pioneering work on olive oil and human health, this book is an indispensable source of timely information and practical insights for agricultural and food scientists, nutritionists, dieticians, physicians, and all those with a professional interest in food, nutrition, and health.

List of contributors

Preface

Chapter 1: Olive Tree History and Evolution

1.1. Introduction

1.2. The Olive Culture in the Mediterranean Region 

1.3. Evolution of the Olive Tree from a Botanical Point of View

1.4. A Different Approach

1.5. Conclusion

References

Chapter 2: Botanical Characteristics of Olive Tree: Cultivation and Growth Conditions – Defence Mechanisms to Various Stressors and Effects on Olive Growth and Functional Compounds

2.1   Introduction

2.2.  Botanical Characteristics

2.3   Cultivation and Growth Conditions

2.4.  Defense Mechanisms Against Various Stresses

2.5.  Factors Affecting Olive Growth and Functional Compounds

2.6.  Conclusion

References

Chapter 3: Conventional and Organic Cultivation and their Effect on Functional Composition of Olive Oil

3.1        Introduction

3.2        Productivity

3.3        Environmental Impact

3.4        Pesticide Residues

3.5        Oil Composition and Quality

3.6        Conclusion

References

Chapter 4: The Influence of Growing Region and Cultivar on Olives and Olive Oil Characteristics and on their Functional Constituents

4.1  Introduction

4.2  Overview of Olive Orchards in some World Crop Areas

4.3   Global Olive Oil Cultivars

4.4  Olive Oil Composition Affected by Genetic and Environmental Factors

4.5 Conclusions 

References

Chapter  5: Olive Fruit and Olive Oil Composition and Their Functional Compounds

5.1. Introduction

5.2.  The Olive Fruit

5.3.  Description of  Olive Fruit and Olive Oil Constituents

5.4.  Olive Oil

5.5.   Pigments

5.6.  Phenols

5.7.  Hydrocarbons

5.8.  Triterpenoids

5.9.  Tocopherols

5.10.  Aliphatic Alcohols and Waxes

5.11.  Sterols

5.12.  Flavor Compounds

5.13.  Conclusion

References

Chapter 6: Mechanical Harvesting of Olives

6. 1.  Introduction

6. 2.  Fruit Removal from the Tree

6. 3. Collection, Cleaning, and Transport of Fallen Fruits

6.4.  Continuous Harvesters

6. 5.  Effects on Oil and Fruit Quality

6. 6.  Conclusion

References

Chapter 7: Olive  Fruit  Harvest and Processing and their Effect on Oil Functional Compounds

7.1. Introduction

7.2. Harvest Time

7.3. Harvest Techniques

7.4. Olive Storage and Transportation to the Olive Oil Mill 

7.5. Processing Steps

7.6. Pressure Process

7.7. Centrifugation Process

7.8. Selective Filtration (Sinolea) Process

7.9. Processing Systems

7.10. Olive Fruit Processing by–Products and their Significance

7.11. The Effect of Enzymes in Olive Fruit Processing and Oil Composition

7.12. Effect of Processing Systems on Olive Oil Quality and Functional Properties

7.13. Conclusion

References

Chapter 8: Application of HACCP and Traceability in Olive Oil Mills and Packaging Units and their Effect on Quality and Functionality

8.1.  Introduction

8.2.  The Basic HACCP Benefits and Rules

8.3.  Description and Analysis of the HACCP  Program in the Olive Oil Mill

8.4. Application of the HACCP Program in the Packaging Unit

8.5. The Context of Traceability

8.6.  Traceability of Olive Oil

8.7.  Legislation for Olive Oil Traceability

8.8.  Compositional Markers of Traceability

8.9.  DNA–Based Markers of  Traceability

8.10.  Sensory Profile Markers of  Traceability

8.11.  Conclusions

References

Chapter 9: Integrated Olive Mill Waste (OMW) Processing towards Complete by–Product Recovery of Functional Components

9.1.  Introduction

9.2.  Characterization of Olive Mill Waste

9.3. Current Technologies for Olive Mill Waste Treatment

9.4.  Recovery of Functional Components from Olive Mill Waste

9.5.  Integral Recovery and Revalorization of Olive Mill Waste

9.6.  Conclusion

References

Chapter 10: Olive Oil Quality and its Relation to the Functional Bioactives and their  Properties

10.1. Introduction

10.2.  Hydrolysis (Lipolysis)

10.3.  Oxidation

10.4.  Prevention of Olive Oil Autoxidation

10.5.  Photooxidation

10.6.  Olive Oil Quality Evaluation with Methods other than the Official

10.7.  Behavior of Olive Oil During Frying Process

10.8.  Off  Flavors of Olive Oil

10.9.  Factors Affecting the Quality of Olive Oil and its Functional Activity

10.10.  Effect of Storage on Quality and Functional Constituents of Olive Oil

10.11.  Conclusion

References

Chapter 11: Optical non–Destructive UV–VIS–NIR–MIR Spectroscopic Tools and Chemometrics in the Monitoring of Olive Oil Functional Compounds

11.1.  Introduction– Functional Compounds in Olive Oil

11.2.  An Introduction to UV–VIS–NIR–MIR Spectroscopy in Olive Oil Analysis

11.3.  Spectroscopic Regions with Interest for Olive Oil Analysis

11.4.  The Basics of Chemometrics

11.5.  Spectra Preprocessing Methods

11.6.  UV–VIS–NIR–MIR Spectroscopy and Chemometrics in Monitoring Olive Oil Functional Compounds

11.7.  UV–VIS–NIR–MIR Spectroscopy and Chemometrics in Monitoring Olive Oil Oxidation

11.8.  FT–IR Spectroscopy and Chemometrics in Monitoring Olive Oil Functional Compounds and Antioxidant Activity

11.9.  The Use of UV–VIS–NIR–MIR Spectroscopy in Olive Oil Industry and Trade

11.10.  Conclusion

References

Chapter 12: Oxidative Stability and the Role of Minor and Functional Components of Olive Oil

12. 1.  Introduction

12.2.  Olive Oil Oxidative Stability

12.3.  Accelerated Oxidative Assays and Shelf Life Prediction

12.4.  Stability of Olive Oil Components: Fatty Acids and Minor Components

12.5.  Antioxidant Capacity of Olive Oil Functional Components

12.6.   Conclusion

References

Chapter 13: Chemical and Sensory Changes in Olive Oil during Deep Frying

13.1.  Introduction

13.2.  Alterations of Chemical  Characteristics in Frying  Olive Oil

13.3.  Oxidation of Olive Oil during Frying

13.4.  Methods for Determination of Polar Compounds (PC) and Evaluation of the Quality of Frying Olive Oil

13.5. Evaluation of the Quality of Frying Olive Oil

13.6.  Prediction of Oxidative Stability under Heating Conditions

13.7.  Impact of Deep Frying on Olive Oil Compared to Other Oils

13.8.  Conclusions

References

Chapter 14: Olive Oil Packaging  : Recent Developments

14.1.  Introduction

14.2.  Migration Aspects during Packaging

14. 3.  Flavor Scalping

14.4.  Effect of Packaging Materials on Olive Oil  Quality 

14. 5.  Conclusions 

References  

Chapter 15: Table Olives, Processing, Nutritional and Health Implications

15.1  Introduction

15.2  Olive Maturation Stages for Table Olive Processing

15.3  Olive Cultivars Suitable for Table Olive Processing

15.4  Factors Affecting Raw Olive Fruit for Table Olive Processing

15.5  Table Olive Processing

15.6  Nutritional, Health and Safety Aspects of Table Olives

15.7  Quality and Safety Aspects Relating to Table Olives

15.8  Antibiotic Aspects of Olive Polyphenols

15.9  Probiotic Capability of Table Olive Products

15.10  Conclusion

References

Chapter 16:Greek Style Table Olives and their Functional Value

16.1. Introduction

16.2.  Table Olive Processing in Greece

16.3  Functional Value of Greek Table Olives

16.4. Conclusion

References

Chapter 17 :Food Hazards and Quality Control in Table Olive Processing with a Special Reference to Functional Compounds

17.1.  Introduction

17.2.  Table Olive Processing Techniques

17.3.  New Trends in Table Olive Processing and Quality Control, with a Special  Reference to Functional Products

17.4.  Food Safety Requirements for Table Olives

17.5.  Conclusions

References

Chapter 18: Improving the Quality of Processed Olives: Acrylamide in Californian Table Olives

18.1.  Introduction

18.2. Acrylamide Formation in Food and Potential Adverse Health Effects

18.3. Regulation of Acrylamide in Food

18. 4.  Acrylamide Levels in Olive Products

18.5.  Effects of Table Olive Processing Methods on Acrylamide Formation

18.6.  Methods to Mitigate Acrylamide Levels in Processed Table Olives

18.7. Conclusions

References

Chapter 19: Antioxidants of olive oil, olive leaves and their bioactivity

19.1. Introduction

19.2. Synthetic Antioxidants

19.3.  Natural Antioxidants

19.4.  Phenols in Table Olives

19.5.  Phenols and Other Constituents of Olive Leaves and Other Olive Tree Products

19.6.  Extraction and Activities of Phenolics

19.7.  Antioxidant and Other Properties of  Olive Phenolics

19.8.  Conclusion

References

Chapter 20: Composition and analysis of functional components of olive leaves

20.1. Introduction

20.2. Olive leaves: qualitative and quantitative analysis

20.3. Future prospects

References

Chapter 21: Production of Phenol –Enriched Olive Oil

21.1.  Introduction

21.2.  Olive Oil Phenolic Compounds and their Functional Properties

21.3.  Effect of the Extraction Process in Olive Oil Functional Compounds

21.4.  Enhancement of Olive Oil′s Antioxidant Content

21.5.  Conclusion

References

Chapter 22: Olives and Olive Oil: A Mediterranean Source of Polyphenols

22.1.  Introduction

22.2.  Phenolic Profile of Olives and Olive Oils

22.3.  Analytical Approaches to Characterize the Phenolic Profile of Olives and Olive Oils

22.4.  Stability of Polyphenols: Cooking Effects

22.5.  Health Effects of Olive and Olive Oil Polyphenols

22.6.  Conclusions

References

Chapter 23: Bioactive Components from Olive Oil as Putative Epigenetic Modulators

23.1.  Introduction

23.2.  Epigenetics as a New Scientific Challenge

23.3.  Types of Epigenetic Modifications

23.4.  Environmental Factors and Epigenetics (the Role of the Diet)

23.5.  Epigenetics and Human Health

23.6.  Epigenetics and Aging

23.7. Olive Oil Components as Dietary Epigenetic Modulators

23.8.  Conclusion

References

Chapter 24: Phenolic Compounds of Olives and Olive Oil and their Bioavailability

24.1.  Introduction

24.2.  Phenolic Compounds of Olives and Olive Oil

24.3.  Bioavailability of Olive and Olive Oil Phenolics

24.4.  Conclusion

References

Chapter 25: Antiatherogenic Properties of Olive Oil Glycolipids

25.1.  Introduction

25.2.  The Role of Inflammation in the Development of Chronic Diseases

25.3.  The Role of Diet in Inflammation

25.4.  PAF and its Metabolism as a Searching Tool for Functional Components with Antiatherogenic Activity

25.5.   Functional Components of Olive Oil with Antiatherogenic Properties

25.6.  Conclusion

References

Chapter 26 :Nutritional and Health Aspects of Olive Oil and Diseases

26.1.  Introduction

26.2.  Dietary Lipids and Cardiovascular Disease

26.3.  Fat Intake and Cancer

26.4. Obesity and Dietary Fat

26.5.  Conclusion

References

Chapter 27 :Lipidomics and Health: An Added Value to Olive Oil

27.1. Introduction

27.2.  Lipidomics: an Added Value to Olive Oil

27.3.  Membrane Lipidomics and Nutrilipidomics: Natural Oils for a Healthy Balance

27.4.  Membrane as Relevant Site for Lipidomic Analysis

27.5. Conclusion and Perspectives

References

Chapter 28: Analysis of Olive Oil Quality

Fereidoon Shahidi, Priyatharini Ambigaipalan and Apostolos Paul Kiritsakis

28.1.  Introduction

28.2.  Fatty Acid Composition and Analysis

28.3.  Measurement of Oxidation

28.4.  Determination of Chlorophylls

28.5.  Determination of Phenols

28.6.  Cold Test

28.7.  Determination of Sterol Content

28.8.  Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) of Olive Oil

28.9.  Authentication and Authenticity of Olive Oil

References

Chapter 29: Detection of Extra–Virgin Olive Oil Adulteration

29.1.  Introduction

29.2.  Parameters Suitable for Authenticity Assessment of EVOO

29.3.  Direct Authenticity Assessment of EVOO

29.4.  Conclusion

References

Chapter 30. Authentication of Olive Oil Based on Minor Components

30.1.  Introduction

30.2. Sterols

30.3. Vitamin E – Tocopherols

30.4.  Phenols

30.5. Volatiles

30.6. Olive Oil Pigments

30.7.  Conclusions

References

Chapter 31: New Analytical Trends for the Measurement of Phenolic Substances of Olive Oil and Olives with Significant Biological and Functional Importance Related to Health Claims

31.1 Introduction

31.2  Phenolic Compounds of Olive Oil with Special Importance

31.3  Analysis of Table Olives

31.4  Conclusion

References

Chapter 32: DNA Fingerprinting as a Novel Tool for Olive and Olive Oil Authentication, Traceability and Detection of Functional Compounds

32.1. Introduction

32.2. DNA–Based Fingerprinting

32.3.  Omics Approaches in Olive and Detection of Functional Compounds

References

Chapter 33: Sensory Properties and Evaluation of Virgin Olive Oils

33.1.  Introduction

33.2.  Description and Review of methodology

33.3. Chemistry, Functionality and Technology behind Senses

33.4.  Positive Attributes of Virgin Olive Oil and Consumption

References

CHAPTER 34: International Standards and Legislative Issues Concerning Olive Oil and Table Olives and the Nutritional, Functional and Health Claims Related

34.1.  Introduction

34.2.  The International Perspective

34.3.    Legislative Approach by Various Countries

34.4.  The European Union Perspective

34.5.  Nutrition and Health Claims Related to Olive Oils

Conclusions

Chapter 35: The Functional Olive Oil Market: Marketing Prospects and Opportunities

35.1.  Introduction

35.2.  The Olive Oil Market

35.3.  The Influence of Certifications of Origin and Production Methods in Olive Oil

35.4.  Case Study – Survey on Consumption Patterns, Labeling, Certification and Willingness to Pay for Olive Oil

35.5.1.  Promotional Strategies 

35.6. Conclusion

References

Apostolos Paul Kiritsakis, PhD is a F.  Professor in the School of Food Technology and Nutrition, at the Alexander Technological Educational Institute of Thessaloniki, Greece. He was one of the first scientists internationally, to conduct extensive research on olive oil quality and has lectured in many countries on the effects of olive oil on human health.

Fereidoon Shahidi, PhD is a University Research Professor at the Department of Biochemistry, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John′s, Canada. Dr Shahidi has been recognized as one of the world s most cited individuals and most productive scientists in the area of food, nutrition and agricultural science.