Methods of Measuring Environmental Parameters

This book provides background information on the main parameters used to determine the state and the quality of the earth’s water, soil and air. Some of the parameters covered are pressure, wind speed, temperature, humidity, precipitation, solar radiation, volatile organic compounds, pH, conductivity, dissolved oxygen concentration, turbidity, redox potential, and flow rates The book goes on to provide a systematic review of the methods and instrumentations used to measure the state and quality of these parameters. Some of the methods covered to determine air, water and soil quality are: digital barometric pressure sensors, Laser Doppler anemometer, automated aspiration Assmann psychrometer, isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS), Dobson and Brewer spectrophotometers, tunable diode laser absorption spectroscopy for stable isotope studies, scintillometers, radiometers, photometers, photon meters, methods of eddy covariance and accumulation, quantum–cascade laser based spectrometers, chemiluminescent and fluorescent methods, ultraviolet photometry, methods of particle emission control, gas chromatography (GC) and mass spectrometry (MS), the combination methods of gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (GC/MS), optical acoustic spectroscopy (OAS), the technique of mass spectrometry based on proton transfer reactions (PTR–MS), miniature gas analysis systems, open air analysis system, Fourier transform spectrometry, optical emission spectroscopy with inductively coupled plasma (OES–ICP), mass spectrometry with inductively coupled plasma (MS–ISP), method of mass spectrometry with membrane introduction (MIMS).

PREFACE xxv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xxix ABOUT THE BOOK xxxi ABOUT THE AUTHOR xxxiii INTRODUCTION 1 Some Principal Definitions, 1 PART I CLIMATIC FACTORS 1 Pressure 5 1.1 Definition of Pressure, 5 1.2 Atmospheric Pressure, 6 1.3 Physiological Effects of Decreased Air Pressure on Human Organism, 9 1.4 Physiological Effects of Altitude on Animals, 9 1.5 Effects of Altitude on Plants, 9 1.6 Variation of Pressure with Depth, 10 1.7 Physiological Effects of Increased Pressure on Human Organism, 11 1.8 Physiological Effects of Pressure on Diving Animals, 12 References, 13 2 Measurement of Pressure 14 2.1 Manometers, 14 2.2 Barometers, 17 2.3 Digital Barometric Pressure Sensor, 19 2.4 Vibrating Wire Sensor, 20 2.5 Capacitive Pressure Sensor, 20 2.6 Measurement of Pressure at Depth, 22 Questions and Problems, 23 Further Reading, 23 Electronic References, 23 Practical Exercise 1. Analysis of Observed Data: Theory of Errors 25 1 Approximation of Data, 25 1.1 Rules for Dealing with Significant Numbers, 25 1.2 The Precision of the Measurement During Multiplication or Division, 26 1.3 The Precision of the Measurement During Addition or Subtraction, 26 1.4 The Precision of the Measurement During Raising to a Power or Extracting a Root, 26 2 Theory of Errors, 26 2.1 Types of Errors, 26 2.2 Errors in Direct Measurements, 27 2.3 Errors in Indirect Measurements, 29 References, 33 Electronic Reference, 33 3 Wind 34 3.1 Definition of Wind, 34 3.2 Forces That Create Wind, 34 3.3 Parameters of Wind, 35 3.4 Effect of Wind on Living Organisms, 37 Reference, 37 4 Measurement of Wind Parameters 38 4.1 Cup Anemometer, 38 4.2 Windmill Anemometer, 40 4.3 Hot–Wire Anemometer, 41 4.4 Sonic Anemometer, 42 4.5 Remote Wind Sensing, 43 4.5.1 Radiosonde, 44 4.5.2 Radar, 44 4.5.3 Sodar, 45 4.5.4 Lidar, 45 4.5.5 Doppler Effect, 46 4.5.6 Satellite and Rocket Remote Sensing, 47 4.6 Measurement of Wind Direction, 47 4.7 Cyclone Assessment, 49 Reference, 49 Practical Exercise 2. Modeling the Variation inWind Speed 50 1 Modeling Variation in Wind Speed Near the Ground, 50 2 Modeling the Variation in Wind Speed Above a Plant Canopy, 52 Questions and Problems, 55 Reference, 56 Further Reading, 56 Electronic References, 56 5 Temperature 57 5.1 Definition of Temperature, 57 5.2 Temperature Scales, 57 5.3 Atmospheric Temperature, 59 5.4 Soil Temperature, 59 5.5 Temperature of Water Reservoirs, 60 5.6 Heat Flux, 60 5.7 Effect of Temperature on Living Organisms, 61 5.7.1 Heat Production, 61 5.7.2 Heat Transfer, 63 6 Measurement of Temperature 67 6.1 Liquid–in–Glass Thermometers, 67 6.2 Bimetallic Thermometer, 69 6.3 Resistance Thermometer, 70 6.4 Thermocouples, 71 6.5 Optical Pyrometry, 72 6.6 Infrared Thermometers, 73 6.7 Heat Flux Measurement, 74 6.8 Method of Scintillometry, 76 References, 77 Practical Exercise 3. Modeling Vertical Changes in Air Temperature 78 1 Measurement of Temperature Above Uniform Surface, 78 2 Measurement of Sensible Heat Flux, 82 Questions and Problems, 83 Reference, 83 Further Reading, 83 Electronic References, 84 7 Humidity 85 7.1 Definition of Humidity, 85 7.2 Parameters of Humidity, 85 7.3 Effect of Humidity on Living Organisms, 86 7.3.1 Effect of Humidity on Human Organism, 86 7.3.2 Effect of Humidity on Microorganisms, 86 7.3.3 Effect of Humidity on Animals, 86 7.3.4 Effect of Humidity on Plants, 87 8 Measurement of Air Humidity 88 8.1 Hygrometers, 88 8.2 Assmann Psychrometer, 88 8.3 Hair Hygrometer, 91 8.4 Capacitive Hygrometer, 92 8.5 Condensation Hygrometer, 93 8.6 Electrolytic Hygrometer, 95 8.7 Radiation Absorption Hygrometer (Gas Analyzer), 95 8.8 An Open–Path System for Measuring Humidity, 96 8.9 Remote Sensing Humidity, 97 Practical Exercise 4. Measuring Parameters of Humidity 99 1 Objectives, 99 2 Materials Supplied, 99 3 Principle of Operation, 99 4 Experimental Procedure, 100 Questions and Problems, 101 Reference, 101 Further Reading, 101 Electronic Reference, 102 9 Precipitation 103 9.1 Definitions, 103 9.2 Mechanisms of Precipitation, 103 9.3 Parameters of Precipitation, 104 9.4 Acid Rain, 104 9.5 Interception, 105 9.6 General Characteristics of Isotopes, 105 9.7 Stable Isotopes of Water, 105 9.8 Isotopic Fractionation, 106 9.9 Stable Isotopes in Precipitation Processes, 106 9.10 Application of Stable Isotopes, 107 9.11 Effect of Precipitation on Living Organisms, 107 9.12 Snow, 108 9.12.1 Parameters of Snow, 108 9.12.2 Effect of Snow on Living Organisms, 109 9.13 Fog, 109 9.13.1 Parameters of Fog, 110 9.13.2 Effect of Fog on Living Organisms, 110 References, 111 10 Measurement of Precipitation 112 10.1 Measurement of Precipitation Parameters, 112 10.1.1 Standard Rain Gauge, 112 10.1.2 Tipping Bucket Rain Gauge, 113 10.1.3 Siphon Rain Gauge, 114 10.1.4 Weighing Bucket Gauge, 116 10.1.5 Optical Rain Gauge, 117 10.1.6 Laser Precipitation Monitor, 117 10.1.7 Acoustic Rain Gauge, 118 10.2 Measurement of Acid Rain Pollution, 119 10.2.1 pH–metry, 120 10.2.2 Conductivity, 120 10.2.3 Ion–Exchange Chromatography, 120 10.3 Isotopes in Precipitation, 121 10.3.1 Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry, 121 10.3.2 Diode Laser: Principle of Operation, 122 10.3.3 Tunable Diode Laser Absorption Spectroscopy, 123 10.3.4 Modulated Techniques, 124 10.3.5 Cavity Ring–Down Spectroscopy, 124 10.4 Remote Sensing of Precipitation, 126 10.4.1 Types of Remote Sensing Techniques, 126 10.4.2 Radars, 126 10.4.3 Satellites, 127 10.4.4 Estimation and Analysis of Precipitation Parameters, 128 10.5 Snow Measurement, 129 10.5.1 Measurement of Snowfall, 129 10.5.2 Snow Gauge, 129 10.5.3 Ultrasonic Snow Depth Sensor, 129 10.5.4 Laser Snow Depth Sensor, 130 10.5.5 Remote Sensing of Snow Cover, 130 10.6 Fog–Water Measurement, 132 References, 132 Practical Exercise 5. Velocity of a Falling Raindrop 134 1 Balance of Forces, 134 2 The Size and Shape of Raindrops, 135 3 The Drag Coefficient, 135 4 The Reynolds Number, 135 Questions and Problems, 138 References, 138 Further Reading, 138 Electronic References, 139 11 Solar Radiation 141 11.1 SI Radiometry and Photometry Units, 141 11.2 The Photosynthetic Photon Flux Density, 142 11.3 Parameters of Sun, 142 11.4 Intensity of the Sun, 142 11.5 Periodicity of Solar Activity, 144 11.6 Spectral Composition of Solar Radiation, 144 11.7 Atmospheric Radiation, 144 11.8 Terrestrial Radiation, 145 11.9 Effect of Solar Ultraviolet Radiation on Living Organisms, 145 11.10 Effect of Solar Visible Radiation on Living Organisms, 146 References, 147 12 Measurement of Solar Radiation 148 12.1 Classification of Radiometers, 148 12.2 Measurement of Direct Solar Radiation—Pyrheliometer, 149 12.3 Measurement of Global Radiation—Pyranometer, 149 12.4 Measurement of Diffuse Radiation—Pyranometer with a Sun–Shading Ring, 150 12.5 Measurement of Long–Wave Radiation—Pyrgeometer, 150 12.6 Measurement of Albedo—Albedometer, 151 12.7 Measurement of Total Radiation—a 4–Component Net Radiometer, 152 12.8 Photometer, 153 12.9 Photon Meter, 154 12.10 Conversion of Light Environment Units, 155 Practical Exercise 6. Parameters of Optical Radiation 156 1 Parameters of Electromagnetic Radiation, 156 2 The Inverse–Square Law, 157 3 The Cosine Law, 158 4 The Wien’s Displacement Law, 159 5 The Stefan–Boltzmann Law, 160 6 The Photosynthetic Photon Flux Density, 160 7 The Laboratory Exercise “The Inverse–Square Law”, 160 Questions and Problems, 162 Further Reading, 162 Electronic Reference, 163 13 Eddy Covariance 164 13.1 Turbulence, 164 13.2 Boundary Layer, 164 13.3 Eddy Covariance, 165 13.4 Turbulent Velocity Fluctuations, 166 13.5 Vertical Momentum Flux, 167 13.6 Sensible Heat Flux, 167 13.7 Latent Heat Flux, 167 13.8 Carbon Dioxide Flux, 168 References, 168 14 Measurement of Eddy Covariance 169 14.1 Meteorological Towers, 169 14.2 Gas Analyzers, 170 14.3 Quantum Cascade Laser Spectroscopy for Atmospheric Gases: Eddy Covariance Flux Measurements, 171 14.4 Stable Isotopes of Carbon Dioxide, 172 14.5 Quantum Cascade Laser Absorption Spectrometry, 173 14.6 Eddy Covariance Measurement of Carbon Dioxide Isotopologues, 173 14.7 Measurement of Eddy Accumulation, 174 14.8 Interaction of Climatic Factors, 174 14.9 Automatic Weather Stations, 175 Reference, 176 Practical Exercise 7. Eddy Covariance Measurement 177 Questions and Problems, 178 Further Reading, 179 Electronic Reference, 180 PART II ATMOSPHERIC FACTORS 15 Atmosphere 183 15.1 Composition of the Atmosphere, 183 15.2 Air Pollution, 183 15.3 Air Quality, 184 Reference, 184 16 Measurement of Ambient Air Quality 185 16.1 Measurement of NO2, 185 16.1.1 Chemiluminescence, 185 16.1.2 The Automatic Cavity Attenuated Phase Shift NO2 Analyzer, 187 16.1.3 Micro–Gas Analysis System for Measurement of NO2, 189 16.1.4 Measurement of NO2 in a Liquid Film/Droplet System, 189 16.1.5 Electrochemical Sensor, 189 16.1.6 Passive Diffusive Samplers, 190 16.1.7 Thick Film Sensors, 192 16.1.8 Open–Path Differential Optical Absorption Spectrometer, 193 16.2 Effect of Nitrogen Dioxide on Human Health, 195 16.3 Measurement of SO2, 195 16.3.1 Fluorescence Spectroscopy, 195 16.3.2 Micro–Gas Analyzers for Environmental Monitoring, 196 16.4 Effect of Sulfur Dioxide on Human Health, 198 16.5 Measurement of CO, 198 16.5.1 Infrared Photometry, 199 16.5.2 Open–Path Fourier Spectrometry, 200 16.5.3 Effect of Carbon Monoxide on Human Health, 202 16.6 Particulate Matter Sampling, 202 16.7 Gravimetric Methods, 203 16.7.1 High–Volume Samplers, 203 16.7.2 Impaction Inlet, 203 16.7.3 Cyclonic Inlet, 203 16.7.4 Low–Volume Samplers, 204 16.7.5 Dichotomous Sampler, 204 16.8 Continuous Methods, 206 16.8.1 Beta Attenuation Monitor, 206 16.8.2 Tapered Element Oscillating Microbalance, 207 16.9 Effect of Particulate Matter on Human Health, 208 16.10 Nanoparticles, 209 16.11 Effect of Nanoparticles on Human Health, 209 16.12 Bioaerosols, 209 16.13 Bioaerosol Sampling and Identification, 210 16.13.1 Bioaerosol Sampler Spore–Trap, 210 16.13.2 Matrix Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry, 211 16.14 Measurement of Atmospheric Ozone, 212 16.14.1 Radiosondes, 212 16.14.2 Dobson and Brewer Spectrophotometry, 213 16.15 Measurement of Ground–Level Ozone, 214 16.16 Effect of Ozone on Human Health, 214 16.17 Measurement of Lead, 214 16.17.1 Atomic Spectrometry of Lead, 214 16.17.2 Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy, 215 16.18 Effect of Lead on Human Health, 216 References, 216 Practical Exercise 8. Fundamentals of Spectroscopy 218 1 Beer–Lambert–Bouger Law, 218 2 Photometry of Ozone in Gas Phase, 219 3 Fourier Transform Spectrometry, 220 Questions and Problems, 221 Further Reading, 221 Electronic References, 221 17 Indoor Air Quality 223 17.1 Indoor Air, 223 17.2 Volatile Organic Compounds, 224 17.3 Sources of Volatile Organic Compounds, 224 17.4 Effect of External Factors on VOCs Emission in Indoor Air, 225 17.5 Health Effects and Toxicity of Volatile Organic Compounds, 226 17.5.1 Sick Building Syndrome, 226 17.5.2 Estimation of Health Effects of VOCs through the Questionnaires, 226 17.5.3 Principles of Phytoremediation, 227 References, 227 18 Methods of Analysis of Volatile Organic Compounds 229 18.1 Principal Stages of Volatile Organic Compounds Analysis, 229 18.2 Gas Chromatography, 230 18.3 Detection Systems, 231 18.3.1 Flame Ionization Detectors, 231 18.3.2 Thermal Conductivity Detectors, 232 18.4 Mass Spectrometry, 233 18.4.1 Sector Field Mass Analyzer, 233 18.4.2 Quadrupole Mass Analyzer, 234 18.5 Combination of Gas Chromatography and Mass Spectrometry, 235 18.6 Photoacoustic Spectroscopy, 236 18.7 Proton Transfer Reaction Mass Spectrometry, 238 18.8 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy of Volatile Organic Compounds, 239 Questions and Problems, 240 References, 240 Further Reading, 242 Electronic References, 242 PART III HYDROGRAPHIC FACTORS 19 Water Quality 247 19.1 Water Resources, 247 19.2 Properties of Water, 247 19.3 Classification of Water, 249 19.4 Quality of Water, 249 19.5 Water Quality Parameters, 249 19.5.1 Drinking Water Quality Parameters, 250 19.5.2 Groundwater Quality Parameters, 250 19.5.3 Surface Water Quality Parameters, 251 19.6 Effect of Water Quality on Human Health, 251 References, 252 20 Measurement of Water Quality Parameters 253 20.1 In Situ Measurement of Water Quality Parameters, 253 20.1.1 pH value, 253 20.1.2 Measurement of pH of Water, 253 20.1.3 Concentration of Dissolved Oxygen, 254 20.1.4 Measurement of Dissolved Oxygen, 254 20.1.5 Oxidation–Reduction Potential, 255 20.1.6 Measurement of Oxidation–Reduction Potential, 256 20.1.7 Turbidity, 256 20.1.8 Measurement of Turbidity, 256 20.1.9 Electrical Conductivity of Water, 261 20.1.10 Measurement of Electrical Conductivity, 261 20.1.11 Measuring Stream Flow, 262 20.2 Laboratory Measurement of Water Quality Parameters, 262 20.2.1 Purge–and–Trap Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry, 263 20.2.2 Membrane Introduction Mass Spectrometry, 264 References, 266 Practical Exercise 9. Water Quality Parameters 267 1 pH–Value, 267 2 Oxidation–Reduction Potential. Nernst Equation, 267 3 Conductivity, 268 4 Water Quality Index, 269 Questions and Problems, 269 Further Reading, 270 Electronic References, 270 PART IV EDAPHIC FACTORS 21 Soil Quality 275 21.1 Soil as a Natural Body, 275 21.2 Soil Structure and Composition, 276 21.3 Soil Quality, 276 21.4 Soil Quality Indicators, 277 References, 277 22 Physical Indicators 278 22.1 Aggregate Stability, 278 22.2 Measurement of Aggregate Stability, 279 22.2.1 Ultrasound Dispersion, 279 22.2.2 Laser Granulometer, 279 22.3 Available Water Capacity, 280 22.4 Measurement of Available Water Capacity, 280 22.5 Bulk Density, 282 22.6 Measurement of Bulk Density, 284 22.6.1 Bulk Density Test, 284 22.6.2 Clod Method, 284 22.6.3 Three–Dimensional Laser Scanning, 285 22.7 Infiltration, 285 22.8 Measurement of Infiltration, 286 22.8.1 Infiltration Test, 286 22.8.2 Single–ring and Double–ring Infiltrometers, 286 22.8.3 Tension Infiltrometer, 287 22.8.4 The Automatic Infiltration Meter, 289 References, 289 23 Chemical Indicators 291 23.1 pH of Soil, 291 23.2 Electrical Conductivity of Soil, 292 23.3 Optical Emission Spectroscopy with Inductively Coupled Plasma, 292 23.4 Mass Spectrometry with Inductively Coupled Plasma, 293 23.5 Laser–Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy, 294 References, 295 24 Biological Indicators 297 24.1 Earthworms as Soil Bioindicators, 297 24.2 Analysis of Earthworms, 298 24.3 A Biota–to–Soil Accumulation Factor, 299 24.4 Soil Respiration, 299 24.5 Measurement of Soil Respiration, 300 24.5.1 The Draeger Tubes, 300 24.5.2 Soil CO2 Flux Chambers, 301 24.5.3 The Automated Soil CO2 Flux System, 301 References, 303 Practical Exercise 10. Determination of the Sedimentation Velocity and the Density of Solid Particles 305 1 Derivation of the Sedimentation Equation, 305 2 Determination of the Sedimentation Velocity of Solid Particles, 306 3 Determination of the Density of Solid Particles, 307 Questions and Problems, 308 Further Reading, 308 Electronic References, 309 PART V VEGETATION FACTORS 25 Spectroscopic Analysis of Plants and Vegetation 315 25.1 Spectroscopic Approach, 315 25.1.1 Optical Radiation, 315 25.1.2 The Interaction of Light with Plant Objects, 316 25.1.3 Reflectance, 316 25.2 Reflectance Spectroscopy, 317 25.3 Methods of Reflectance Spectroscopy, 317 25.3.1 Laboratory Methods, 318 25.3.2 Portable Reflectance Instrumentation, 319 25.3.3 Near–Field Reflectance Instrumentation, 319 25.3.4 Vegetation Indices, 320 25.3.5 Remote Sensing of Vegetation Reflectance, 321 25.3.6 Multispectral Scanning, 321 25.3.7 Spectral Bands MSS and TM, 322 25.3.8 Spectral Vegetation Indices that are used in the Remote Sensing, 323 25.4 Effect of External Factors on Single Leaf and Canopy Reflectance, 324 25.5 Fluorescence Spectroscopy, 325 25.5.1 Photosynthesis and Chlorophyll Fluorescence, 325 25.5.2 Fluorescence Properties of a Green Leaf, 326 25.5.3 Fluorescent Properties of Vegetation, 326 25.6 Laboratory Methods of Fluorescence Spectroscopy, 327 25.6.1 Spectrofluorometry, 327 25.6.2 Fluorescence Induction Kinetics, 328 25.6.3 Optical Multichannel Analysis, 330 25.6.4 Pulse Amplitude Modulation Fluorometry, 330 25.6.5 Fluorescence Indices, 332 25.7 Remote Sensing of Vegetation Fluorescence, 333 25.7.1 Laser–Induced Fluorescence Spectroscopy for In Vivo Remote Sensing of Vegetation, 333 25.7.2 Laser Spectrofluorometer, 333 25.8 The Effect of Various Factors on the Chlorophyll Fluorescence, 335 References, 335 Practical Exercise 11. Determination of Perpendicular Vegetation Index 338 Questions and Problems, 340 Further Reading, 341 Electronic References, 341 PART VI PHYSICAL TYPES OF POLLUTION 26 Mechanical Vibration 345 26.1 Parameters of Vibration, 345 26.2 Vibration Level, 346 26.3 Sources of Vibration, 346 26.4 Effect of Vibration on Human Health, 346 27 Measurement of Vibration 348 27.1 Resistive Transducers, 348 27.2 Electromagnetic Transducers, 349 27.3 Capacitive Transducers, 349 27.4 Piezoelectric Transducers, 349 27.5 Laser Doppler Vibrometer, 350 28 Noise 351 28.1 Main Defintions of Noise, 351 28.2 Sources of Noise, 351 28.3 Parameters of Noise, 352 28.4 Equivalent Sound Level, 352 28.5 Integrating Sound Level, 353 28.6 Spectral Density of Noise, 353 28.7 Effect of Noise on Human Health, 354 28.8 Mechanisms of Noise Action, 354 28.9 How to Protect Yourself from Noise, 355 28.10 Effect of Noise Pollution on Ecosystem, 355 29 Measurement of Noise 356 29.1 Sound Level Meters, 356 29.2 Types of Microphones, 357 29.3 Noise Frequency Analyzers, 357 29.4 Sound Intensity Measurement, 357 Practical Exercise 12. Sound Insulation and Reverberation Time 358 1 Sound Insulation, 358 2 Reverberation Time, 359 30 Thermal Pollution 362 30.1 Sources of Thermal Pollution, 362 30.2 The Effect of Thermal Pollution on Living Organisms, 362 31 Measurement of Thermal Pollution 364 31.1 Thermal Discharge Index, 364 31.2 Indirect Measurement of Thermal Pollution, 364 32 Light Pollution 365 32.1 The Sources of Light Pollution, 365 32.2 Types of Light Pollution, 365 32.2.1 Light Trespass, 366 32.2.2 Over–Illumination, 366 32.2.3 Glare, 366 32.2.4 Clutter, 366 32.2.5 Sky Glow, 366 32.3 Effects of Light Pollution on Human Health, 366 32.4 Effects of Light Pollution on Wildlife, 367 References, 367 33 Measurement of Light Pollution 368 33.1 Digital Photography, 368 33.2 Portable Spectrophotometers, 369 33.3 Sky Quality Meter, 369 33.4 The Bortle Scale, 370 References, 370 34 Electromagnetic Pollution 371 34.1 Principal Terminology and Units, 371 34.2 Electromagnetic Pollution, 372 34.3 Effect of Elecromagnetic Pollution on Human Health, 373 34.3.1 Extremely Low Fields, 373 34.3.2 Estimation of Health Effects of EMF Through the Questionnaires, 374 34.3.3 Radiofrequency and Microwave Fields, 375 34.3.4 Effect of Mobile Phones on Human Health, 375 34.3.5 Effect of Computer on Human Health, 375 References, 376 35 Measurement of Electromagnetic Pollution 377 35.1 EMF Meter, 377 35.2 Types of EMF Meters, 377 36 Radioactive Pollution 380 36.1 Principal Definitions, 380 36.2 Units of Radioactivity, 381 36.3 Nuclear Explosions and Testing of Nuclear Weapons, 381 36.4 Accidents at Nuclear Power Plants, 382 36.4.1 Three Mile Island Accident, 382 36.4.2 Kyshtym Accident, 382 36.4.3 Chernobyl Accident, 382 36.4.4 Fukushima Accident, 383 36.4.5 Effect of Radioactive Pollution, 383 References, 384 37 Measurement of Ionizing Radiation 385 37.1 Doses of Ionizing Radiation, 385 37.2 Gas–Filled Detectors, 386 37.2.1 Ionization Chamber, 387 37.2.2 Proportional Counter, 388 37.2.3 Geiger–M¨uller Counter, 389 37.3 Scintillation Counter, 390 37.4 Semiconductor Diode Detector, 390 37.5 Thermoluminescent Dosimeter, 391 Practical Exercise 13. Investigation of Radionuclide Activity and Determination of the Absorption Coefficient of Gamma Radiation 393 1 Objectives, 393 2 Theory, 393 3 Experiment, 394 Questions and Problems, 395 References, 396 Further Reading, 396 Electronic References, 397 PART VII BIOTIC FACTORS 38 Bioindication 401 38.1 Lichens as Bioindicators, 401 38.2 Algae as Bioindicators, 402 38.3 Classification of Water Reservoirs, 402 38.4 Water Quality Indices, 402 38.5 Invertebrates as Bioindicators, 404 References, 406 Electronic References, 406 39 Biomonitoring 407 39.1 Test–Organisms and Test–Functions, 407 39.2 Bacteria as Test–Objects, 408 39.3 Protozoa as Test–Objects, 408 39.4 Algae as Test–Objects, 408 39.4.1 Photomovement Parameters of Algae as Text–Functions, 408 39.4.2 Gravitaxis Parameters of Algae as Text–Functions, 409 39.5 Invertebrates as Test–Objects, 409 39.5.1 Daphnia as Test–Object, 409 39.5.2 Daphnia Toximeter, 410 39.6 Fungi as Test–Objects, 410 39.7 Fish as Test–Objects, 410 39.8 Remote Water–Quality Monitoring, 411 References, 411 Practical Exercise 14. Photomovement Parameters as Test–Functions During Biomonitoring 412 1 Simultaneous Use of Several Test–Functions During Biomonitoring, 412 2 Vector Method of Biomonitoring, 413 Questions and Problems, 414 References, 415 Further Reading, 415 Electronic References, 415 APPENDIX 417 INDEX 421

Yuriy Posudin is a Professor in the Department of Physics at the National University of Life and Environmental Sciences of Ukraine. Dr Posudin is the author of numerous books, journal articles, and the inventor of various methods, and instruments for environmental and biological monitoring.